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LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY    OF 
CALIFORNIA 


DECORATIVE  ART 


PLATE    I.       INDIGO    DYED    BATIK    FROM    MADRAS 


DYES  and  DYEING 


BY 

CHARLES    E.  PELLEW 

v^ 

Formerly  Adjunct  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  Columbia  University 


< 


NEW    YORK 

ROBERT  M,  McBRIDE  &  COMPANY 
1918 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
McBRIDE,  NAST  &   COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT,  19*8,  BY 
ROBERT  M.  McBRIDE  &  COMPANY 


New  and  enlarged  edition 
Published,   January,    igi8 


py 


(Mr 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER     I— INTRODUCTION  ....        5 

Dyes  of  the  Ancients — Dyes  of  Our 
Ancestors — Animal,  Vegetable  and 
Mineral  Dyes — Outfit  for  Practical 
Dyeing. 

CHAPTER   II— MODERN  DYESTUFFS        .         .      40 

Discovery  of  the  Aniline  or  Coal-Tar 
Colors — Their  Properties  and  Uses — 
How  Obtained — How  Named — Class- 
ification of  Coal-Tar  Colors  for  Crafts- 
men. 

CHAPTER  III— THE    DIRECT    COTTON    OR 

SALT   COLORS  ...      53 

Discovery,  Properties  and  Uses  of  the 
Salt  Colors;  with  Lists  of  Selected 
Dyestuffs,  and  Dying  Directions  for 
Cotton  and  Linen — Fastness  to  Light 
and  Washing — After-treatment. 

CHAPTER  IV— THEORY  AND    PRACTICE    OF 

COLOR   DYEING      ...      71 

Even  and  Shaded  Dyeing  with  the 
Primary  Colors  —  Experiments  with 
Secondary  Colors — Matching  Shades. 

CHAPTER    V— THE  SULPHUR  COLORS   .        .      85 

Discovery  — Properties  and  Uses  of 
the  Sulphur  Colors — List  of  Selected 
Dyestuffs,  and  Dyeing  Directions  for 
Cotton  and  Linen. 

CHAPTER  VI— THE  INDIGO  OR  VAT  COLORS      91 

Natural  and  Synthetic  Indigo — Prop- 
erties and  Application — Vat  Dyeing, 
Old  and  Modern  —  Dyeing  Directions 
—  The  Modern  Vat  Colors  —  Their 
Properties  and  Uses — Selected  Dye- 
stuffs —  Fastness  to  Light  and  Wash- 
ing—  Dyeing  Directions  for  Cotton, 
Linen  and  Silk. 

iii 

M856356 


iv  Contents 

PACK 

CHAPTER   VII— THE  BASIC  COLORS  .        .        .108 

History,  Properties,  and  Application 
to  Cotton,  Wool,  Silk,  etc.  —  Disad- 
vantages—  Not  Fast  to  Light  —  Dye- 
ing Directions  for  Straw,  Raffia,  etc. 

CHAPTER VIII— THE  ACID   COLORS.        .        .    123 

History,  Properties,  Uses,  and  List  of 
Selected  Dyestuffs  —  Dyeing  Direc- 
tions for  Wool. 

CHAPTER    IX— DYEING   FEATHERS          .        .    131 

The  Dye-bath— The  Dyeing  Method 
— The  Finishing  Process — Dry  and 
Wet  Starching — Dyeing  in  the  Starch 
—Black  Dyeing  of  Feathers— Painting 
Feathers. 

CHAPTER      X— LEATHER    AND    LEATHER 

DYEING     ...         .        .141 

History — Preparation  of  Leather — 
Oil,  Mineral  and  Bark  Tanning —  Dye- 
ing, Staining  and  Finishing  Leather. 

CHAPTER     XI— SILK   I  .        .  ^     .        .        +        .    156 

History,  Origin  and  Varieties  of  Silk 
— Preparing  Silk  for  Dyeing — Piece 
Dyeing — Skein  Dyeing — Dyeing  Wild 
Silks. 

CHAPTER  XII— SILK  II         .        .         .  .    168 

Black  Dyeing  of  Silk  —  Coal  Tar-Colors 

—  Logwood  —  Weighting    of    Silk  — 
Properties  and  Tests  for  Weighted  Silk 

—  Dyeing    Silk    with  Colors  Fast  to 
Washing. 

CHAPTER  XIII— IMITATION  AND  ARTIFICIAL 

SILK 181 

History,  Preparation  and  Properties 
of  Mercerized  Cotton — History,  Prep- 
aration and  Properties  of  Artificial 
Silk — Precautions  to  be  Taken  in  Dye- 
ing and  Finishing. 


Contents  v 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    XIV— TIED  AND  DYED  WORK        .    192 

As  Used  in  South  America,  India, 
Philippines  and  U.  S. — Variations  in 
Tying  Process  —  How  Dyed  —  Tied 
and  Discharged  Work. 

CHAPTER      XV— STENCILS  AND  STENCILLING    211 

Japanese  Practice  —  U.  S.  Practice — 
Knives,  Brushes,  Paper,  etc.— Colors 
for  Leather,  Silk,  and  Cotton— Sten- 
cilling with  Aniline  Black  Paste. 

CHAPTER   XVI— RESIST    AND     DISCHARGE 

STENCILLING  .         .         .         .228 

Japanese  Practice — Resist  Paste  and 
the  Sulphur  Colors — Discharge  Sten- 
cilling with  Bleaching  Powder  and 
Hydrosulphite. 

CHAPTER  XVII— BATIK  OR  WAX  RESIST         .    241 

Javanese  Practice  — Modern  Practice 
and  Apparatus  — Dyeing  of  Batiked 
Goods — Use  of  Batik  Process  on  Cot- 
ton, Linen,  Silk,  Leather,  Wood,  Bone, 
etc. 

CHAPTER  XVIII— THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE 
WAR  UPON  THE  DYESTUFF 
INDUSTRY  ....  260 

Rise  of  the  German  Dyestuff  Mo- 
nopoly— Ruin  of  the  English  Dye- 
stuff  Industry — Dyestuff  Industry  in 
the  United  States— Changed  Con- 
ditions Due  to  the  War— Lists  of  Best 
Dyestuffs. 


THE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES   IN   COLOR 

PLATE 

I    Indigo  dyed  batik  from  Madras    .        .        .     Frontispiece 

FACING   PAGE 

II    Japanese  towelling,  showing  impression  of  fresh  damp 

leaves 26 

III  Same  towelling  after  immersion  in  iron  spring  .        .      30 

IV  (a)  Example  of  tied  and  dyed  work  ) 
(b)  Example  of  tied  and  discharged  work    ) 

V    Japanese  towelling  stencilled  in  resist  and  dyed  by 

immersion  in  iron  spring 230 

ILLUSTRATIONS   IN   HALF-TONE 

FIG. 

1  Shellfish  used  by  the  ancients  for  Tyrian  purple   .        .12 
Sir  W.  H.  Perkin 4« 

2  Tied  and  dyed  headdress  from  an  Inca  tomb  in  Peru    .     192 

3  Shikar  chundri,  from  Rajputana,  with  knots  still  untied    196 

4  Same  chundri  untied  and  shaken  out    .        .        .        .198 

5  Bagobo  headdress  from  the  Island  of  Mindanao     .        .    200 

6  Sample  of  tied  and  dyed  work,  "  tied  on  itself"      .        .    202 

7  Sample  of  tied  and  dyed  work,  "tied  in  bands"     .        .    204 

8  Tied  and  dyed  work— Folding  the  cloth        .        .        .206 

9  Starting  to  tie      .        .        .        .    206 

10  Centre  portion  tied     .        .        .    206 

11  Centre  and  corners  tied     .        .    208 

12  Dyed,  untied  and  shaken  out     .    208 

13  Japanese  stencil  knife      .        .        ...        .        .        .212 

14  Japanese  stencil  brushes 212 

15  Japanese  stencil,  showing  holes  punched  by  hand  tool    216 

vii 


viii  Illustrations 

FIG.  FACING    PAGE 

16  Japanese  stencil,  showing  use  of  stops         .        .        .  216 

17  Japanese  stencil,  showing  use  of  sewing  instead  of  stops  ai6 

18  Japanese  stencils,  showing  use  of  both  stops  and  net     .  218 

19  Large  and  handsome  Japanese  stencil,  showing  use 

of  net  .        .        .        . 224 

20  "Teapot"  model  of  tjanting    .        .        .        .        .        .     248 

21  Walther  glass  tjanting      .        .        .        .        .        .        .    248 

22  "Wax  pencil"  model  of  tjanting 248 

23  Javanese  tjantings     .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .250 

24  American  modification  of  Javanese  tjanting        .        .    250 


DIAGRAMS   IN  THE   LETTERPRESS 

PAGE 

Primary  Colors  .       .....        .        .        .73 

Mixed  Colors      .       .    "'..;..     . '.   .       .  79 


PREFACE 

WHEN  a  new  text-book  is  offered  to  an  innocent  and 
long-suffering  public  about  such  an  ancient  subject  as 
Dyes  and  Dyeing,  it  is,  perhaps,  the  very  least  that 
the  author  can  do,  to  explain  briefly  his  reasons  for 
hoping  that  his  particular  book  may  prove  of  some 
special  usefulness. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  this  book  is  intended  for  the  use 
of  craftsmen  and  others  who  are  trying  to  dye  and 
stain  textiles  by  hand  and  on  a  small  scale,  rather  than 
for  professional  dyers  or  dyeing  chemists  who  are  in- 
terested in  factory  dyeing,  conducted  on  a  large  scale. 
For  the  latter  there  is  little  or  no  difficulty  in  getting 
any  information  that  they  desire,  either  from  the 
large  and  carefully  written  text-books  or,  still  better, 
from  the  many  excellent  dyeing  manuals  and  books  of 
directions  issued  at  frequent  intervals  by  the  great 
color  houses. 

But  for  craftsmen  and  their  like,  the  amateur  dyers 
as  opposed  to  the  regular  professionals,  the  required 
information  is  not  easy  to  obtain.  Their  leaders  and 
teachers,  as  a  rule,  profess  a  scorn  of  the  wonderful 
discoveries  which,  in  the  last  half  century,  have  revolu- 
tionized the  art  of  dyeing  more,  perhaps,  than  any 
other  branch  of  handicraft.  And  the  dyeing  chemists 
and  writers  have  devoted  themselves  almost  exclusively 
to  the  far  larger  and  more  important  and  more  profit- 


2  Preface 

able  field  of  commercial  or  professional  dyeing,  and 
only  here  and  there  is  one  found  who  has  given  any 
special  attention  to  the  dyes  and  processes  needed  by 
those  working  only  on  a  small  scale. 

For  my  own  part,  after  teaching  the  principles  and 
practice  of  modern  dyeing  to  class  after  class  of 
chemical  students  at  Columbia,  my  attention  was 
called  to  this  particular  branch  of  the  subject  by  find- 
ing, one  spring,  that  some  friends  had  started  a  hand- 
weaving  industry  at  a  settlement  house  in  which  I  was 
interested,  but  had  not  made  any  arrangement  for  a 
dye-house  at  the  same  time.  This  was  a  serious  omis- 
sion because  it  is  almost  impossible  to  buy  in  the 
market  raw  materials  for  hand-woven  rugs,  table- 
covers,  and  the  like,  that  are  dyed  just  the  right  shade 
and,  at  the  same  time,  are  fast  to  both  light  and  wash- 
ing; and,  unless  this  last  is  guaranteed,  there  is  little 
or  no  excuse  for  charging  the  large  prices  necessary 
to  pay  for  the  extra  expense  of  the  hand  labor. 

Wishing,  therefore,  to  help  out  my  friends,  I  offered 
to  assist  as  far  as  possible  in  this  part  of  the  work. 
That  summer  was  spent  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  where 
it  was  possible  to  study  some  of  the  textile  work  of  the 
French  habitants  whose  dyeing  processes,  designs,  and 
looms  had  descended  from  mother  to  daughter  since 
the  old  Colonial  days;  and  in  the  autumn  I  fitted  up 
a  little  dye-house  and  started  with  a  small  but  intelli- 
gent class  of  neighbors  who  were  working  at  the 
looms. 

Of  course,  it  was  foolish  to  attempt  to  teach  them 
the  scientific  chemical  formulae  used  by  my  students 


Preface  3 

uptown.  The  processes  must  be  short  and  simple — 
must  give  the  desired  shades  on  cotton,  linen,  wool, 
and  silk  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a 
half  at  the  outside,  counting  from  the  time  when  the 
class  was  called  to  order.  And  the  colors  must  be  ab- 
solutely fast  to  light,  and,  wherever  possible,  to  wash- 
ing also. 

The  work  was  very  interesting  and  proved  success- 
ful enough,  at  least  as  far  as  the  dyeing  went.  After 
a  few  months  some  visiting  reporter,  in  an  article  on 
Greenwich  House  and  its  industries,  mentioned  the 
dyeing,  in  a  magazine,  and  stated  that  the  colors 
resulting  were  not  only  beautiful  but  fast.  Immedi- 
ately I  was  bombarded  with  letters  from  all  over  the 
country,  begging  for  information  about  permanent  dye- 
stuffs  to  be  used  for  hand-woven  textiles.  Requests 
came  from  friends  and  acquaintances  to  help  them  in 
various  side  branches  of  the  subject,  such  as  feather 
dyeing,  leather  dyeing  and  staining,  stencilling,  tied 
and  dyed  work,  and,  above  all,  Batik.  And  it  soon 
became  a  source  of  much  interest  to  look  up  some  old 
process  of  dyeing,  originating  perhaps  in  the  East, 
perhaps  among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  to  work 
it  out  with  the  best  modern  dyestuffs. 

Finally,  my  correspondence  grew  so  burdensome 
that  I  arranged  with  the  well-known  New  York  maga- 
zine, The  Craftsman,  for  a  series  of  articles  upon 
"  Modern  Dyestuffs  and  Dyeing  Processes  for  the 
Use  of  Craftsmen";  and  from  these  articles  the  pres- 
ent book  is  a  natural  result. 

It  is  hoped  that  it  will  prove  useful,  not  only  for 


4  Preface 

individuals  who  are  trying,  under  considerable  diffi- 
culties, to  get  satisfactory  results,  by  means  of  long- 
abandoned  processes,  upon  textile  materials  of  many 
sorts  and  kinds,  but  also  for  teachers  of  art  in  our 
public  as  well  as  private  schools.  Much  attention  is 
being  given  now  to  training  the  hands  of  children  in 
various  drawing  and  decorating  and  weaving  processes. 
But  the  modern  dyestuffs  give  a  much  greater  oppor- 
tunity to  train  their  eyes  to  a  sense  of  color  and  to  its 
beauties,  as  well  as  giving  them  an  introduction  into 
an  art  which  can  be  used  at  home  for  most  useful  as 
well  as  beautiful  purposes. 

My  hearty  thanks  are  due  to  many  friends,  notably, 
to  Mr.  Philip  Clarkson,  head  chemist  of  H.  A.  Metz 
&  Co.,  to  Dr.  Ludwig,  of  the  Cassella  Color  Co.,  and 
to  many  other  expert  dyeing  chemists,  who  have  most 
kindly  helped  me  with  advice  and  information  about 
many  widely  varying  branches  of  the  subject.  Also  to 
many  of  my  craftsman  friends,  notably  Mrs.  C.  L. 
Banks,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  Mrs.  Charlotte 
Busck,  of  this  city,  who  have  been  of  the  greatest 
assistance  in  working  out  many  of  the  problems  in- 
volved in  stencilling  and  Batik;  and  to  Miss  Mary  Grey, 
of  Hackettstown,  N.  J.,  who  has  kindly  allowed  me  to 
insert  an  illustration  of  some  of  her  interesting  and 
well-designed  tied  work  (Fig.  7).  It  is  my  earnest 
hope  that  the  information  contained  in  this  book  may 
encourage  and  assist  other  craftsmen  throughout  the 
country  to  come  up  to  the  high  standard  of  these 
skilled  textile  workers. 

C.  E.  P. 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

THERE  has  been  so  much  said  and  written  about 
the  beauty  and  value  of  the  old-fashioned  dye- 
stuffs  and  dyeing  processes  and  their  superiority 
to  the  modern  coloring  matters,  that  many  well- 
meaning  people  of  artistic  tastes  have  never  ceased  to 
deplore  the  discovery  and  introduction  of  the  so-called 
aniline  or  coal-tar  dyes,  and  to  regard  them  as  a  serious 
detriment  to  the  art  of  dyeing. 

Some,  indeed,  have  gone  so  far  as  to  decry  the  dis- 
coveries not  only  of  the  last  fifty  years,  but  also  of 
the  last  nineteen  or  twenty  centuries.  These  quote 
with  approval  the  great  John  Ruskin,  founder  and 
original  leader  of  the  whole  Arts  and  Crafts  movement 
in  England,  if  not  in  the  world,  as  having  said,  "  There 
has  been  nothing  discovered  of  the  slightest  interest 
in  the  tinctorial  art "  (the  art  of  dyeing)  "  since  the 
days  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans/' 

To  suppose  for  an  instant  that  this  important  and 
highly  specialized  art  has  not  advanced  during  nearly 
two  thousand  years  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  absurd.  A 
very  little  knowledge  of  dyestuffs  forces  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  many  of  the  very  best,  fastest,  and 
most  beautiful  of  the  dyes  of  our  ancestors — such  as 
cochineal,  with  which  they  dyed  practically  all  of  their 

5 


6  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

fast  pinks  and  scarlets;  logwood,  with  which  silk  as 
well  as  wool  was,  and  is  still  dyed  black;  fustic, 
which  was  used  for  fast  yellows  on  wool  and  cotton, 
and  several  others — were  natives  of  America,  and 
therefore  only  known  to  the  world  at  large  since  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Indeed,  as  we  shall  see,  the  art  of  dyeing,  based  as 
it  is  on  chemical  processes,  discovered  one  by  one,  but 
never  properly  explained  or  understood  until  the  last 
sixty  or  seventy  years,  is,  perhaps,  the  one  art  above 
all  others  in  which  not  only  the  ancient  world,  but  the 
world  of  comparatively  a  few  years  ago,  was  very  dis- 
tinctly inferior  to  that  of  the  present  day. 

In  drawing,  sculpture,  painting,  architecture,  ceram- 
ics, wood-carving,  lacemaking,  metal  working,  and 
almost  every  other  art  that  can  be  mentioned,  the 
craftsman  of  the  Middle  Ages,  if  not  indeed  of  ancient 
Rome  or  Greece,  could  still  hold  his  place  against 
modern  competitors.  Even  in  such  a  modern  art  as 
book  printing,  the  lover  of  books  will  claim,  with  con- 
siderable reason,  that  no  more  beautiful  or  more 
nearly  perfect  specimen  of  the  printer's  art  has  ever 
been  produced  than  the  Gutenberg  Bible,  the  first 
product  of  the  European  printing  press. 

The  art  of  dyeing,  however,  has  been  changing  and 
developing  so  much  from  century  to  century,  that,  even 
before  the  wonderful  discoveries  of  the  last  fifty  years, 
the  effects  produced  by  any  one  generation  of  dyers 
would  have  been  totally  impossible  for  their  ancestors 
of  a  few  generations  before  them. 

It  would  seem  hardly  worth  while  to  dwell  further 


Introduction  7 

upon  this  subject,  were  not  the  idea  so  fixed  in  the 
minds  of  craftsmen  in  general  that  to  get  permanent 
and  artistic  effects  in  dyeing  we  must  go  back  to  the 
colors  of  our  ancestors,  if  not  to  those  of  the  ancient 
world.  To  this  day  we  hear  of  new  industries  being 
started  in  the  lines  of  hand-made  tapestries,  hand- 
woven  linens,  homespun  cloths,  and  the  like,  where, 
as  a  great  inducement  to  prospective  purchasers,  the 
goods  are  loudly  proclaimed  as  dyed  with  "  pure  vege- 
table colors  " ;  and  the  first  question  commonly  asked 
about  a  pretty  piece  of  dyed  work  is,  "  Are  you 
sure  that  it  is  fast?  Did  you  use  the  vegetable 
dyes?" 

As  a  result  of  this  ignoring  and  scorning  of  the 
wonderful  results  of  modern  science  in  its  applica- 
tion to  this  most  important  industry,  the  work  of 
textile  craftsmen  all  over  the  world  is  far  behind  the 
times,  and  comparatively  far  behind  other  lines  of 
craftwork. 

Nobody  expects  a  modern  sculptor  to  do  his  carving 
with  the  bronze  tools  used  by  the  old  Athenians; 
nor  do  we  consider  that  the  present  day  worker  in 
metals  should  refrain  from  using  the  modern  gas 
furnace,  or  limit  his  products  to  the  few  metals  and 
alloys  known  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ignoring  those  which 
modern  chemistry  has  developed.  And  yet,  all  over 
the  world,  craftsmen  are  still  pottering  with  long  since 
obsolete  dyestuffs  and  obscure  and  antiquated  formulae, 
instead  of  spending  their  energies  in  getting,  with 
the  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and  trouble,  results 
of  a  quality  never  dreamed  of  by  the  most  skilful 
dyers  of  half  a  century  ago. 


8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  so  far  from  Mr.  Ruskin's 
estimate  of  the  value  of  ancient  dyes  being  correct, 
it  is  actually  no  more  than  fair  to  say  that  hardly  a 
single  dyeing  process,  known  and  used  more  than 
fifty  years  ago,  is  of  the  slightest  practical  importance 
now  to  any  one. 

DYES    OF    THE    ANCIENTS 

So  far  as  we  can  tell,  the  art  of  dyeing  is  an  ex- 
tremely ancient  one.  It  seems  to  have  developed  in 
every  country  and  to  have  been  practised  by  every  race 
of  mankind,  as  soon  as  that  race  ceased  to  rely  ex- 
clusively upon  the  skins  of  fur-bearing  animals  for 
clothing  and  coverings.  Wherever  we  find  people 
using  woven  goods,  whether  vegetable,  like  cotton  or 
linen,  or  animal,  like  wool  or  silk — or  wherever,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  North  American  Indians,  they  have 
learned  the  art  of  dressing  skins  so  as  to  make  them 
soft,  pliable,  and  with  a  comparatively  smooth  surface, 
we  find  at  least  the  rudiments  of  the  process  of  dyeing, 
in  the  staining  of  these  materials  to  add  to  their  beauty 
and  interest. 

Vegetable  Dyes. — The  earliest  dyes  were  probably  of 
vegetable  origin,  discovered  by  accidentally  staining 
garments  with  juices  of  fruits  or  plants.  Thus,  for 
instance,  in  the  Bible  we  read  of  "  garments  dyed  in 
the  blood  of  grapes";  and  we  can  all  call  to  mind 
fruits  in  common  use — blackberries,  huckleberries, 
peaches,  and  the  like,  whose  juice  could  be  used,  if 
nothing  better  presented  itself,  to  dye  or  stain  light 
colored  fabrics. 


Introduction  9 

In  most  cases,  as  in  those  just  mentioned,  the  colors 
would  be  fugitive,  and  after  a  short  time  become  dull 
and  uninteresting.  But  in  the  process  of  time  vege- 
table dyes  were  discovered,  in  one  part  and  another 
of  the  world,  which,  in  the  hands  of  those  who  knew 
how  to  work  with  them,  gave  colors  both  fast  and 
beautiful.  And  thus  grew  and  developed  the  art  of 
the  professional  dyer. 

For  instance,  in  many  widely  separated  countries, 
such  as  India,  Java,  South  and  Central  America,  plants 
are  found,  known  as  indigoferae,  whose  juices,  yellow 
when  fresh,  rapidly  turn  blue  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
These  juices  impart  a  rich  and  permanent  blue  stain 
to  objects  moistened  with  them  while  they  are  still 
yellow;  and  this  blue  is  the  coloring  matter  known 
as  indigo.  The  plants  bearing  it  have  been  cultivated 
for  hundreds,  if  not,  indeed,  thousands  of  years,  and 
used  for  dyeing. 

Garments  and  blankets  found  in  the  so-called  Inca 
graves  in  Peru  and  Chili,  dating  from  long  before 
the  Spanish  conquest,  as  well  as  the  oldest  specimens 
of  Hindoo  workmanship,  and  even  some  of  the  textiles 
found  in  the  tombs  of  Egypt,  all  show  examples  of 
this  same  dyestuff.  It  was  so  valuable  that,  in  small 
quantities  and  at  vast  expense,  it  was  imported  by  the 
Romans  from  India,  as  is  shown  by  its  Latin  name, 
Indicum  (Indian),  from  which  its  present  name,  in- 
digo, is  directly  derived. 

But,  curiously  enough,  exactly  the  same  dyestuff, 
but  in  a  very  impure  form,  and  derived  from  an  en- 
tirely different  plant,  the  isatis  tinctoria,  commonly 


io  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

known  as  woad,  has  been  discovered  and  used  in  West- 
ern Europe  from  time  immemorial.  And  when  Julius 
Caesar,  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  led  a  Roman 
army  for  the  first  time  across  the  channel  into  Eng- 
land, he  found  the  native  Britons  adorning  themselves 
by  smearing  their  bodies  with  a  dirty  blue  dyestuff 
obtained  from  this  source. 

So,  little  by  little,  the  knowledge  of  these  natural 
dyestuffs  and  their  application  grew  and  expanded. 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  so  far  at  least  as  can  be 
gathered  from  the  old  writers,  those  known  and  used 
by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  were  few  in  num- 
ber and  of  comparatively  little  interest. 

For  blues  they  were  obliged  to  use  the  inferior  color 
derived,  as  above  mentioned,  from  the  native  woad, 
excepting  when,  for  some  special  purposes,  a  little 
indigo  was  imported  from  the  East  at  enormous  ex- 
pense. 

Their  principal  yellow  dyestuff  was  saffron,  which 
is  derived  from  the  flowers  of  the  common  yellow 
crocus.  This  gives  pleasant,  warm  shades  of  golden 
yellow,  not  fast,  however,  to  either  light  or  washing. 
This  same  saffron,  though  long  since  entirely  aban- 
doned as  a  dyestuff,  is  still  used  in  small  quantities  for 
staining  candy  and  foodstuffs,  and  occasionally  for 
medicinal  purposes. 

The  ancients  are  believed  to  have  discovered  the 
dyeing  properties  of  the  roots  of  madder — rubia  tinc- 
torum — (the  dyer's  root),  and  to  have  used  it  in  small 
quantities  for  producing  purple  and  brown  and,  pos- 
sibly, even  red  shades,  on  cotton  and  wool.  Whether, 


Introduction  1 1 

however,  the  art  of  dyeing  the  brilliant  crimson  and 
scarlet  shades  known  as  Turkey  red  was  ever  worked 
out  before  the  Middle  Ages,  is  extremely  doubtful. 
Animal  Dyes. — Unquestionably  the  best  red  dyes 
known  to  the  people  of  those  early  times  were  of 
animal  origin,  and  were  used  for  various  shades  of 
red  and  of  purple. 

Kermes. — One  of  these,  called  kermes,  is  very  closely 
related  to  the  more  important  and,  up  to  a  few  years 
ago,  the  very  generally  used,  cochineal,  and  to  the 
lac  dye. 

These  three  dyestuffs — kermes,  cochineal,  and  lac — 
come  to  the  market  in  the  form  of  little  dark  colored 
grains,  which,  when  ground  lip  with  hot  water,  give 
a  bright  red  solution  called  carmine,  which  contains 
a  considerable  amount  of  a  coloring  known  as  car- 
minic  acid.  When  wool  or  silk  that  has  been  pre- 
viously mordanted — that  is,  impregnated  with  chem- 
ical agents;  in  this  case  salts  of  tin,  aluminium,  iron, 
or  copper — is  boiled  in  one  of  these  solutions,  it  be- 
comes scarlet,  crimson,  purple,  or  claret  color,  accord- 
ing to  the  mordant  employed.  From  the  appearance 
and  form,  as  they  come  to  market,  of  these  dyestuffs, 
the  shades  thus  derived  are  commonly  known  as  the 
"  grain  colors." 

When  these  granules  are  soaked  for  some  time  in 
warm  water  they  swell,  and  their  true  character  be- 
comes apparent.  They  consist  of  the  dried  bodies  of 
small  insects,  known  as  "cocci"  (berries),  which  are 
carefully  cultivated  on  particular  kinds  of  trees  or 
shrubs  and  when  full  grown  are  brushed  off  and  dried 


12  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

for  market.  They  are  very  small — the  cochineal 
grains,  which  are  the  most  important,  running  about 
70,000  to  the  pound. 

Kermes,  which  was  the  only  one  of  the  three  known 
to  the  old  Greeks  and  Romans,  consists  of  the  dried 
bodies  of  the  "coccus  ilicis"  a  variety  of  the  insect 
which  lives  on  a  species  of  oak,  and  which,  it  is  said, 
is  still  occasionally  used  in  Southern  Europe,  and  in 
Morocco,  for  dyeing  leather  and  wool. 
Tyrim  Purple. — The  most  highly  prized  ancient  dye- 
stuff,  and  one  concerning  which  much  interest  has 
always  been  felt,  was  the  so-called  "  Tyrian  purple." 
This  was  obtained  from  the  juices  of  certain  species  of 
snails  found  in  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and,  indeed,  in  the  ocean  waters  of  many  other  warm 
climates.  Two  species  of  this  class — the  mwrex 
Brandaris  and  the  murex  trunculus — were  used  ex- 
tensively by  the  ancients,  and  great  mounds  of  their 
shells,  such  for  instance  as  the  so-called  Monte  Tes- 
taccio  at  Tarentum,  are  still  found  along  the  shores 
at  places  famous,  in  old  days,  for  their  dyeing  es- 
tablishments. 

Other  shellfish  of  the  same  general  type,  known 
as  purpura  lapillus,  are  found  quite  abundantly,  not 
only  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  also  on  our  own  coast 
and  along  the  shores  of  Central  and  South  America. 
They  have  been  used  by  the  natives  in  Nicaragua  and 
elsewhere,  from  time  immemorial,  for  obtaining  a 
similar  color. 

These  shellfish  were  so  much  sought  after  in  the 
old  days  that,  by  the  time  of  the  early  Middle  Ages, 


m 


I  3 


Introduction  13 

they  were  almost  exterminated,  and  the  dye  disap- 
peared from  commerce  entirely.  But,  long  before 
that,  in  the  early  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
coloring  matter  was  so  expensive  that  fabulous  sums 
were  paid  for  cloth  or  yarns  dyed  with  it,  and  its  use 
was  practically  confined  to  the  imperial  family.  In 
fact  one  of  the  imperial  titles  in  the  Eastern  empire — 
purpureogenitus,  "  born  to  the  purple  " — was  due  to 
this  fact. 

Some  interesting  information  upon  the  value  set  on 
this  dyestuff  by  the  ancients  is  afforded  by  the  so-called 
Edict  of  Diocletian,  fragments  of  which,  engraved  on 
stone  tablets,  have  been  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  old  Roman  Empire,  ranging  from  Egypt  to  Asia 
Minor.  By  this  edict,  issued  in  A.p.  301,  the  emperor 
Diocletian  attempted  to  fix  the  market  price  of  the 
principal  articles  of  commerce,  for  the  Eastern  empire. 
According  to  this,  the  price  of  wool,  heavily  dyed  with 
this  color,  was  worth  about  $350  a  pound,  in  gold. 

The  dyestuff,  as  we  learn  from  the  description  of 
the  process  by  ancient  writers,  was  obtained  from  a 
whitish  or  yellowish  liquid  found,  two  or  three  drops 
at  a  time,  in  a  particular  vein  in  the  body  of  these 
animals.  This  juice,  when  exposed  to  air  and  espe- 
cially to  sunshine,  forms  the  purple  or  violet  color, 
much  in  the  some  manner  that  the  blue  color  of 
indigo  is  formed  from  the  yellow  juice  of  the  indigo 
plant. 

The  shellfish  in  question,  having  for  many  cen- 
turies been  left  undisturbed,  are  now  quite  common 
in  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  are  occasion- 


14  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ally  to  be  found  in  the  poorer  quarters  of  Venice 
and  other  Italian  seaports,  exposed  for  sale  as  food. 

A  year  or  two  ago  a  German  color  chemist,  famous 
for  his  discovery  of  the  brilliant  and  extremely  perma- 
nent reddish  violet  dyestuff,  known  as  Thio-indigo  red 
B.,  made  a  careful  investigation  to  see  whether,  by  any 
chance,  this  color  of  his  might  happen  to  be  the  same 
as  the  famous  old  Tyrian  purple. 

He  managed  to  secure  some  twelve  thousand  speci- 
mens of  murex  Brandaris,  and,  with  an  immense 
amount  of  labor,  obtained  from  these  twelve  thou- 
sand specimens  about  twenty-one  grains  of  pure  dye- 
stuff.  This  he  carefully  analyzed  and  experimented 
with,  until  finally  he  was  able  to  prove  that,  while 
it  was  not  identical  with  his  own  Thio-indigo  red 
dyestuff — which,  as  the  name  shows,  is  a  compound 
of  indigo  and  sulphur — the  Tyrian  purple  was  a  sim- 
ilar compound  of  the  same  indigo  dyestuff,  with  the 
comparatively  rare  acid  element,  bromine.  In  fact 
it  is  what  the  chemists  would  call  a  brom-indigo;  and 
this  same  famous  chemist,  Dr.  Friedlaender,  of 
Biebrich  on  the  Rhine,  after  discovering  its  compo- 
sition, amused  himself  by  manufacturing  some  of  it 
artificially;  and,  with  the  artificial  reproduction  of 
the  ancient  Tyrian  purple,  he  dyed  some  skeins  of 
silk,  as  an  illustration  to  his  article  detailing  his  dis- 
covery. 

Now,  if  there  were  any  truth  in  the  theory  of  the 
superlative  value  and  beauty  of  these  ancient  dye- 
stuffs,  it  is  evident  that  this  rediscovery  of  the  true 
and  genuine  Tyrian  purple  would  have  been  a  matter 


Introduction  15 

of  great  practical  importance.  On  the  assumption 
that  one  pound  of  dyestuff  would  color  at  least  twenty 
pounds  of  wool,  this  would  put  the  price  of  the  dye 
itself,  in  Diocletian's  day,  at  a  pretty  high  figure. 

It  can  now  be  manufactured,  at  a  profit,  for  not 
over  one  one-thousandth  of  what  it  cost  in  those  days, 
not  allowing,  either,  for  the  difference  in  value  of 
money  between  then  and  now.  And  yet  this  famous 
dye,  which  was  so  highly  esteemed  and  of  which  so 
much  has  been  written,  is  so  inferior  in  color  and 
tone  to  several  of  the  modern  dyestuff s  that  it  prob- 
ably would  not  pay  to  put  it  on  the  market.  Dr. 
Friedlaender's  samples  were,  indeed,  fast  to  both  light 
and  washing,  but  their  color  showed  dull  and,  to 
modern  eyes,  distinctly  uninteresting  shades  of  violet. 
And  there  are  already  on  the  market  several  violet, 
red  and  blue  dyes  of  the  same  general  class — the  in- 
digo or  vat  dyes — which  are  quite  as  fast  to  light  and 
washing,  and  far  superior  in  beauty  and  brilliancy 
of  shade. 

It  is  only  proper,  however,  to  state  that  Dr. 
Friedlaender's  investigation  did  not  completely  clear 
up  the  subject,  though  there  is  no  question  but  that 
he  really  discovered  the  true  Tyrian  purple;  and  the 
color  of  the  specimens  dyed  and  exhibited  by  him 
corresponded  very  closely  to  some  still  surviving  from 
antiquity. 

Among  the  fine  collections  of  textiles  from  the 
Egyptian  tombs  that  are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art  in  New  York  City,  are  some  excellent  ex- 
amples of  Tyrian  purple.  These  are  what  the  Greeks 


16  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

used  to  call  "  di-bapha,"  or  double  dyed — i.e.,  dyed 
very  deep,  full  shades  of  dark  purple.  While  a  won- 
derful example  of  the  lighter,  violet,  shades  of  the 
same  dye  can  be  seen  in  a  famous  manuscript,  known 
as  "  The  Golden  Gospels,"  now  in  Mr.  J.  Pierpont 
Morgan's  collection  in  the  same  city,  but  which  was 
given  about  1520,  by  Pope  Leo  X  to  King  Henry  VIII. 
This  was  written,  in  golden  characters,  upon  vellum 
dyed  with  Tyrian  purple,  and  the  shades  of  the  latter 
correspond  quite  closely  with  the  violet  of  the  artificial 
brom-indigo  compound. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  evidence  to  show  that 
the  ancients  were  also  able  to  obtain,  with  the  same 
Tyrian  purple  dye,  perhaps  from  the  shellfish  purpura 
lapillus,  fast  and  brilliant  shades  of  scarlet,  as  well 
as  these  rather  dull  tones  of  violet  and  purple.  In 
the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  as  above  mentioned, 
the  use  of  "  purple  "  garments  was  denied  to  all  but 
the  imperial  family;  but  later,  after  the  rise  of  the 
Christian  Church,  the  ecclesiastics  gained  sufficient 
power  to  obtain  this  privilege  for  themselves.  And 
to  this  day  the  cardinals  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  are  called  "  porporati "  on  account  of  the 
"  purple  "  or,  as  we  would  say,  scarlet,  color  of  their 
characteristic  robes.  So,  whenever  we  see  the  red 
robes  of  a  high  dignitary  of  the  church  we  are  prob- 
ably looking  at  one  of  the  tints  of  the  real  old  Tyrian 
purple,  although  the  art  of  actually  producing  it  has 
long  since  been  lost;  and,  if  rediscovered,  would  prob- 
ably be  of  as  little  practical  value  as  Dr.  Fried- 
laender's  remarkable  investigation. 


Introduction  17 

THE  DYES   OF   OUR   ANCESTORS 

Between  the  days  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  the  discovery  of  the  first  aniline  dye 
in  1856,  many  and  important  additions  were  made 
to  the  list  of  available  dyestuffs,  some  of  which  have 
continued  in  use,  for  special  purposes,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent day. 

Indian  Dyes. — The  opening  of  trade  to  the  Far  East, 
due  to  the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  round  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  brought  to  Europe  the  free  use  of 
some  of  the  Indian  dyestuffs.  Indigo,  for  instance, 
was  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, and,  after  much  opposition,  completely  took  the 
place  of  the  much  inferior  native  dyestuff,  woad. 

For  yellow,  the  old  saffron  dye  was  superseded  by 
the  more  powerful,  but  still  rather  fugitive,  turmeric, 
or  Indian  saffron.  This  came  from  the  root  of  the 
curcuma  tinctoria,  a  plant  freely  grown  to  this  day  in 
both  India  and  China.  The  safflower  was  also  im- 
ported from  India;  this  is  a  kind  of  thistle,  carthamus 
tinctorum,  the  dried  heads  of  flowers  of  which  were 
largely  used  for  dyeing  pretty  shades  of  pink  upon 
cotton,  directly — that  is,  without  any  mordanting 
process.  This  color,  too,  is  comparatively  fugitive 
to  light,  and  has  almost  disappeared  from  sight. 

Of  more  importance  were  the  so-called  red  woods, 
which  came  partly  from  India  and  partly  from  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa;  and  of  which  the  most 
important  are  the  sandal  wood,  bar  wood,  and  cam 
wood.  The  wood  of  each  of  these  trees  probably 


1 8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

contains  the  same  coloring  matter.  The  color  is  not 
very  easy  to  extract,  but  when  used  with  mordants 
of  chromium,  aluminium,  or  tin  salts,  it  dyes  wool 
various  shades  of  red  and  reddish  brown.  These 
colors  are  very  fast  to  milling — in  other  words  to 
the  action  of  alkalies  when  the  wool  is  finished  in 
the  manufacture  of  broadcloth;  but  they  are  not  par- 
ticularly fast  to  ligtyt,  and  for  this  reason,  as  well  as 
because  of  their  greater  expense,  they  have  been  for 
the  most  part  abandoned. 

From  India,  too,  were  introduced  the  well-known 
brown  dyes  known  as  cutch  (catechu)  and  gambier. 
These  come  to  the  market  in  the  form  of  dark  colored 
pastes,  formed  by  evaporating  infusions  of  leaves, 
seed  pods,  nuts,  and  sometimes  the  wood  of  various 
species  of  acacia  and  areca  trees.  They  contain  large 
amounts  of  a  peculiar  variety  of  the  substance  known 
as  tannin  or  tannic  acid,  which  is  widely  distributed 
among  many  plants,  and  which  is  very  useful  in  dye- 
ing, as  will  be  described  later.  The  brown  coloring 
matter  has  been  isolated,  and  is  called  catechin.  Both 
cutch  and  gambier  will  dye  cotton  and  wool  rich  shades 
of  brown,  which  are  quite  fast  to  light  when  after- 
treated  with  copper  or  chromium  salts. 
Dyes  from  the  New  World — The  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, and  the  colonizing  and  opening  to  trade  of  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  still  further  enlarged  the  field 
for  dyers. 

Cochineal. — One  of  the  first  dyes  introduced  from 
there  was  cochineal,  a  "  grain  color/'  similar  to 


Introduction  19 

kermes,  already  described,  consisting  of  the  dried 
bodies  of  an  insect  known  as  coccus  cacti,  because  it 
lives  upon  certain  kind  of  cactus  which  are  native 
to  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

This  dyestuff  was  largely  used  for  dyeing  wool 
and  silk  goods,  and  produced  fairly  fast  shades  of 
crimson  or  of  scarlet,  according  to  the  mordant  em- 
ployed. But  it  has  been  replaced  almost  entirely 
now  by  the  various  acid  dyes,  to  be  described  later, 
which  are  cheaper,  are  much  easier  to  apply,  and  are 
of  equal  and,  in  many  cases,  of  much  greater,  fastness 
to  light. 

One  of  the  few  cases  where  cochineal  is  still  used 
on  a  large  scale  is  in  England,  where  the  scarlet 
coats  of  the  British  regulars  are  dyed  with  this  color, 
on  a  tin  mordant.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  this 
is  not  due  to  any  real  or  fancied  superiority  of  the 
old  dye  over  many  of  the  modern  colors,  but  simply 
to  the  terms  of  an  old  "  perpetual "  contract,  which, 
a  hundred  and  fifty  years  or  more  ago,  gave  the 
privilege  of  dyeing  the  English  "  redcoats  "  to  one 
particular  firm  and  their  successors,  on  condition  that 
they  use  this  dye  and  none  other.  Although  both 
dyers  and  government  would  profit  by  the  use  of 
modern  dyes,  the  terms  of  the  old  contract  are  still 
rigidly  adhered  to  for  fear  of  losing  the  monopoly. 
Lac  Dye. — The  similar  dyestuff  called  lac  dye,  which 
had  been  known  and  used  in  India  for  hundreds  of 
years,  was  introduced  into  Europe  towards  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  It  also  is  the  body  of  a  small 
insect,  the  coccus  laccae,  which  lives  on  the  twigs  of 


2O  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  banyan  tree,  and  other  varieties  of  fig  trees. 
When  these  twigs  are  broken  off  and  dried  to  kill 
the  insect,  there  is  found  present  on  them,  along  with 
the  coloring  matter,  a  large  amount  of  a  peculiar 
resinous  or  gummy  substance,  which,  when  extracted 
and  purified,  is  known  and  widely  used,  as  "  shellac/' 

Lac  dye  was  used  in  practically  the  same  way  as 
cochineal,  and  produced,  upon  wool,  scarlet,  orange, 
and  crimson  shades,  which  were  faster  and  more  solid, 
but  not  as  brilliant,  as  the  cochineal.  It  is  now  used 
but  rarely,  even  in  the  East,  having  been  largely  super- 
seded, there,  by  brilliant  but,  unfortunately,  in  many 
cases,  cheap  and  worthless  modern  dyestuffs. 
Fustic. — From  America,  also,  came  the  excellent  yel- 
low dyestuff,  "  fustic,"  yielded  by  the  tree  commonly 
called  yellow  wood,  Cuba  wood,  etc.  Its  true  botan- 
ical name,  however,  is  chlorophora  tinctoria,  and  it 
was  largely  used  for  dyeing,  either  directly  in  the 
form  of  chips,  or  as  a  solid  or  liquid  extract  made 
from  the  wood. 

It  was  principally  used  with  mordants  of  aluminium 
or  tin  salts,  for  dyeing  wool  bright,  fast  shades  of 
yellow,  or,  with  the  aid  of  bichromate  of  potash  as 
a  mordant,  for  obtaining  mixed  shades,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  indigo,  cutch,  madder,  and  logwood.  It 
has  been  almost  entirely  replaced  now  by  fast  modern 
dyestuffs. 

Logwood. — The  most  important  of  all  these  dyestuffs, 
and  the  only  one  still  used  on  a  large  scale,  is  logwood, 
a  dye  extracted  from  the  wood  of  quite  a  large  tree, 
the  haemal oxylon  Campechianum  (the  "  blood-red 


Introduction  21 

wood  from  Campeachy"),  which  grows  freely  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Central  American  states. 

It  was  discovered  and  used  by  the  Spaniards  early 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign  was  introduced  into  England,  much  against  the 
wishes  of  the  older  school  of  dyers  who  furiously 
denounced  it  as  producing  fugitive  colors,  and  had  its 
use  prohibited  by  Act  of  Parliament.  It  was  over  a 
hundred  years  before  the  real  value  of  the  dyestuff 
was  appreciated,  and  this  law  was  repealed. 

The  operation  of  extracting  the  coloring  matter 
from  the  wood  itself,  of  which  it  forms  only  some 
three  per  cent,  by  weight,  is  a  troublesome  and  delicate 
one.  The  logs  are  chipped  or  rasped  into  fine  pieces, 
then  moistened  and  piled  in  heaps  and  the  color  de- 
veloped by  a  process  of  fermentation.  Accordingly, 
extracts  of  logwood  have  been  put  on  the  market  by 
various  large  firms,  especially  of  late  years,  and,  while 
the  use  of  the  wood  itself  by  dyers  has  for  the  most 
part  been  abandoned,  these  extracts  are  widely  used 
for  dyeing  blacks  upon  silk,  in  spite  of  there  now 
being  many  excellent  acid  blacks. 

The  dyeing  process,  too,  is  rather  complicated,  for 
the  goods  must  be  carefully  mordanted  before  dyeing, 
with  salts  of  iron,  chromium,  or  tin.  For  this  reason 
wool  is  rarely  dyed  with  logwood.  It  is,  however, 
still  used  for  silk  dyeing,  partly  because  it  gives  very 
full,  deep,  permanent  shades  of  black,  but  principally 
because,  by  using  one  mordant  after  another  before 
dyeing,  it  is  possible  to  increase  enormously  the  weight 
of  the  dyed  silk,  at  very  moderate  expense. 


22  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Turkey  Red. — The  use  of  madder  which,  as  before 
mentioned,  was  probably  known  to  the  ancients,  was 
greatly  developed  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  owing  to  the  introduction  from  the  near 
East  of  the  so-called  Turkey  red  process  for  obtaining, 
upon  cotton  and  wool,  very  fast  and  very  brilliant 
shades  of  scarlet. 

The  process  took  some  three  months,  and  consisted 
of  an  elaborate  series  of  mordanting  operations,  be- 
fore the  dyeing  proper  began.  The  goods  were  first 
soaked  in  a  bath  of  some  fatty  material,  such  as 
milk  or,  later,  rancid  olive  oil,  and  then  dried  care- 
fully. After  this  they  were  soaked  in  a  bath  of  alum 
and  then  in  limewater,  or  a  chalk  bath — and  these 
operations  were  repeated  over  and  over,  with  various 
manipulations  in  between. 

Finally,  the  mordanted  material  was  dyed  by  boil- 
ing it  in  a  bath  containing  the  finely  ground  madder 
root,  and  then  "  brightened "  by  washing  out,  in  a 
boiling  soap  bath,  all  the  loose  color  and  the  unfixed 
mordant.  This  process  was  repeated  until  the  proper 
shade  was  reached. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
various  extracts  of  madder  were  made,  by  treating  the 
ground  root  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  other 
agents,  which  destroyed  the  woody  tissues  and  other 
inert  matter,  without  injuring  the  coloring  matter. 
The  dyeing  process  also  was  greatly  simplified  and 
shortened.  Later  the  real  active  principles  of  the 
madder  root  were  investigated,  and  found  to  be  two 
crystalline  bodies  named  alizarine  and  purpurine,  re- 


Introduction  23 

spectively.  And  finally,  several  years  after  aniline 
dyestuffs  had  been  discovered  and  manufactured,  two 
German  chemists,  Graebe  and  Liebermann,  discovered 
a  method  for  making  these  very  identical  substances 
out  of  coal  tar. 

Since  that  time  the  cultivation  and  use  of  madder 
has  disappeared  almost  entirely.  But  real  Turkey  red 
is  manufactured  to-day,  and  in  very  large  quantities — 
and,  though  freely  imitated  by  inferior  products,  the 
modern  Turkey  red  is  just  as  fast  to  light  and  to  wash- 
ing as  it  ever  was  in  the  past,  and  possesses  a  brilliance 
and  a  lustre  which  never  could  have  been  obtained 
formerly.  The  process,  however,  is  completed  now 
in  hours,  not  days,  and  instead  of  yielding  a  few  shades 
of  red  and  purple,  the  alizarine  colors  have  been  added 
to  until  they  cover  a  large  range  of  blues,  purples, 
reds,  oranges,  yellows,  and  browns,  all  of  them  as 
fast  as  the  original  Eastern  products,  and  all  of  them 
made  from  coal  tar. 

The  dyes  already  mentioned  were  the  ones  which, 
after  hundreds  of  years  of  experiment,  proved  to  be 
of  distinct  value.  Many  of  them  were  expensive  in 
themselves  and,  in  almost  every  case,  the  process  of 
dyeing  with  them  was  a  quite  complicated  one,  worked 
out  by  generations  of  practical  dyers,  and  passed  down 
from  father  to  son  as  a  precious  trade  secret. 

Besides  these  there  were,  in  almost  every  com- 
munity, certain  special  formulae  and  recipes  for  ob- 
taining, by  comparatively  simple  methods,  dyes  of 
varying  degrees  of  value  from  more  or  less  common 
vegetable  materials.  Some  of  these  are  occasionally 


24  Dyes  and  Dyeing  • 

met  with  to  this  day.  Thus,  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, well  down  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  French 
Canadian  women  still  dye  their  homespun  worsteds 
an  orange  shade  of  yellow,  of  very  moderate  fastness 
to  light,  by  boiling  them  with  the  skins  of  the  yellow 
or  brown  onions.  And  they  get  a  pretty,  but  fugitive, 
shade  of  golden  yellow  by  using  the  dried  flowers  of 
the  goldenrod. 

Some  recipes  from  the  mountain  districts  of  North 
Carolina,  where  the  sheep  are  raised  and  sheared,  and 
the  wool  carded,  spun,  dyed,  and  woven  into  home- 
spun, are  unique,  and  wool  dyed  with  them  shows 
extremely  good  color.  Thus,  for  green,  we  are  told 
to  "  Git  blackjack  or  black  oak  bark,  and  bile  it  right 
good,  and  put  in  a  li'l  piece  of  alum.  This  makes 
the  pur'tiest  green,  mighty  nigh,  that  ever  was/'  And 
for  purple  and  black  the  instructions  are  to  "  git 
maple  bark  and  bile  it.  Throw  in  a  grain  of  copperas 
and  put  in  your  wool.  Bile  it  just  so  long  if  you 
want  purple,  and  longer  if  you  want  black.  The 
longer  you  bile  it  the  darker  it  gits." 

Recipes  like  these  can  be  picked  up  in  country  dis- 
tricts all  over  the  land  to  this  day,  and  where  no 
other  coloring  agents  can  be  obtained,  they  may  still 
be  of  some  use.  They  are  to  be  compared,  however, 
to  the  somewhat  similar  recipes  of  the  herb  or  "  yarb  " 
doctor,  now  almost  extinct,  who  concocted  various 
brews  and  teas  and  messes  from  roots  and  leaves,  and 
administered  them  as  valuable  remedies. 

Useful  these  brews  undoubtedly  were  in  their  day, 
when  it  was  impossible  to  get  better  medicines  at 


Introduction  25 

any  price,  and  the  available  drugs,  even  in  large  cities, 
were  few  and  costly  and  but  little  understood.  But 
who  of  us  would  now  prefer  to  treat  a  serious  illness 
with  herb  tea  when  within  reach  of  even  a  third-class 
drug  store? 

And  so  to-day,  when  modern  dyestuffs,  even  if  not 
of  the  very  best  varieties,  can  be  bought  in  packages 
at  the  nearest  grocery  or  druggist,  who  has  time  to 
waste  upon  the  laborious  processes  and  messy,  un- 
certain formulae  of  former  and  unscientific  ages? 

MINERAL  DYES 

Tribes  and  nations  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
seem,  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  to  have  found 
out  the  art  of  coloring  and  staining  textiles  with 
mineral  compounds.  Iron  springs,  containing  iron 
salts  in  solution,  are  found  in  many  countries;  and 
such  springs  are  always  noteworthy  from  the  taste 
of  the  waters,  and  the  color  of  the  sediments  left 
when  the  water  stands  exposed  to  the  air. 

Therefore  discovery  of  the  fact  that  those  waters 
would  impart  a  permanent  and  quite  pleasing  orange 
or  reddish-brown  color  to  textiles  was  perfectly  na- 
tural. 

Iron  Buff — Accordingly,  in  different  parts  of  the 
world,  people  learned  to  dip  cloths  in  these  springs 
and  then  expose  them  to  the  air,  thus  dyeing  them  this 
iron  rust  color,  commonly  called  by  dyers  "  iron 
buff."  When  iron  became  a  common  metal,  it  was 
found  that  any  soluble  salt  of  iron  would  act  as  a 


26  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

dyeing  solution,  just  as  well  as  a  natural  iron  spring; 
and  hence  we  find  use  made,  in  widely  separated 
countries,  of  iron  salts  for  dyeing. 

This  iron  buff  is  used  to  this  day,  though  of  course 
it  has  lost  the  importance  it  had  in  the  past.  The 
red  sails  of  the  fishermen  in  the  Mediterranean  show 
this  color;  and  it  is  a  useful  and  interesting  dye  for 
weavers  of  hand-made  rugs,  curtains,  and  the  like, 
because  of  its  pleasing  tone  and  great  permanence. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  likely  to  rub;  and  it 
fills  the  fibre  of  the  cloth  with  mineral  matter,  thereby 
making  the  material  stiff  and  hard  to  sew  or  cut. 
Preparation. — Our  colonial  ancestors  made  this  color 
cheaply  enough.  They  carefully  saved  all  the  scraps 
of  iron  and  steel  that  they  could  find — old  horseshoes, 
broken  knife  blades,  etc.,  etc. — and  placed  them  in  a 
barrel  half  filled  with  vinegar  and  water.  Little  by 
little  the  iron  dissolved  in  the  acid  and,  when  it  was 
strong  enough,  the  housewife  would  soak  her  home- 
spun cloth,  or  other  material,  in  the  solution,  warming 
and  stirring  it,  and  making  it  absorb  as  much  of  the 
liquor  as  possible.  Then  she  would  take  it  out,  wring 
it  thoroughly,  rinse  it  slightly,  and  dip  it  for  a  minute 
or  two  in  another  barrel  half  filled  with  a  water  ex- 
tract of  wood  ashes. 

After  removing  from  the  solution  and  wringing 
again,  the  goods  were  shaken  out  and  exposed  to  the 
air  for  some  minutes,  during  which  time  the  color 
would  develop — in  other  words,  would  make  its  final 
change  to  yellow  or  orange,  or  even  to  brownish-red, 
according  to  the  amount  of  iron  absorbed  by  the  fibre. 


PLATE  II.      JAPANESE  TOWELLING,  SHOWING  IMPRES- 
SION OF  FRESH   DAMP    LEAVES 


Introduction  27 

The  process,  nowadays,  is  much  the  same,  excepting 
that,  for  the  first  or  iron  bath,  it  is  cheaper  and 
easier  to  use  a  solution  of  the  green  crystalline  iron 
salt,  known  as  copperas,  or  as  ferrous  (iron)  sulphate. 
This  can  be  obtained  at,  or  through,  any  drug  store 
at  a  very  low  price,  as  it  is  not  necessary  to  buy  a 
chemically  pure  product.  The  ordinary  commercial 
salt  is  as  pure  as  the  work  requires;  this  dissolves 
quite  readily  in  warm  water. 

The  amount  of  copperas  to  be  used,  to  dye  a  par- 
ticular lot  of  material  a  particular  shade,  can  only 
be  determined  by  experience  and  experiment.  It  is 
always  easy  to  build  up  a  color,  i.e.,  to  deepen  its 
shade  if  it  is  too  light,  by  dipping  the  fabric  over 
again  in  the  same  dye-bath.  Indeed  there  is  a  general 
rule  to  be  observed  in  dyeing  all  colors  like  this  iron 
buff  or  the  manganese  brown — as  well  as  the  sulphur 
and  indigo  colors,  which  will  be  described  later — that 
are  developed,  or  fixed,  by  exposure  to  the  air.  When- 
ever dark  shades  of  these  colors  are  desired,  they 
should  be  produced  by  successive  dippings  in  weak 
baths,  rather  than  by  one  or  two  dippings  in  strong 
baths.  This  avoids  rubbing,  as  far  as  possible,  and 
lessens  the  injury  to  the  cloth  fibre.  In  general,  it  is 
best  to  start  with  a  dye-bath  containing  some  three 
or  four  tablespoonfuls  of  copperas  to  one  gallon  of 
hot  water. 

For  the  second,  or  fixing,  bath — that  is,  the  alkali 
bath — it  is  now  customary  to  use  a  solution  of  soda 
instead  of  the  extract  made  from  wood  ashes.  Either 
cooking  soda  (bicarbonate  of  soda)  or  the  stronger 


28  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

washing  soda  or  soda  crystals,  known  to  the  chemist 
as  carbonate  of  soda,  will  be  satisfactory,  and  in- 
stead of  soda  the  corresponding  potash  salts  may  be 
used,  though  these  are  usually  more  expensive.  It  is 
possible,  too,  to  use  a  bath  of  the  so-called  caustic 
soda,  or  caustic  potash,  known  to  the  chemist  as 
hydroxide  of  soda  and  hydroxide  of  potash.  But 
these,  as  the  name  implies,  must  be  handled  with  care 
because,  when  strong,  they  are  likely  to  burn  the 
hands  and  clothes.  Careful  analyses  of  dyed  mummy 
cloths  show  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  accus- 
tomed to  use  for  their  second  or  fixing  bath,  a  solu- 
tion of  slaked  lime,  or  lime  water. 
Khaki. — By  mixing  in  the  first  bath  of  copperas  or 
other  iron  salt  an  equal  quantity  of  chrome  alum,  and 
then  fixing  and  developing  as  above,  a  certain  amount 
of  greenish  chromium  oxide  is  deposited  in  the  fibre 
along  with  the  oxide  of  iron.  This  gives  rise  to  the 
shade  known  as  "  khaki."  Sometimes  shaded  a  little 
with  manganese  brown,  this  was  the  regular  dye  for 
the  army  uniforms,  until  the  recent  introduction  of 
the  extremely  fast  and  very  satisfactory  vat  dyes. 
Uses. — Iron  buff  is  chiefly  used  for  cotton,  linen,  and 
other  vegetable  fabrics;  on  them  it  gives  pleasant, 
warm  shades  of  orange  and  reddish-brown.  But  on 
wool,  and  especially  on  silk,  it  is  not  so  satisfactory, 
owing  to  its  tendency  to  roughen  and  injure  the  fibre. 
Indeed,  in  the  case  of  silk,  it  is  likely  to  greatly  dimin- 
ish, or  even  to  destroy,  the  lustre.  On  cotton  and 
linen,  however,  it  has  great  fastness  to  light  and  to 
washing.  Indeed,  every  one  who  has  tried  to  get  rust 


Introduction  29 

stains  out  of  a  garment  or  a  piece  of  table  linen  knows 
how  hard  a  matter  it  is  to  get  rid  of  the  color. 

Another  important  reason  for  using  this  dye  is 
that  the  coloring  agents  are  very  cheap,  and  are  easily 
obtained  in  any  quantities.  It  has,  however,  some 
serious  disadvantages,  one  of  which  is  that  the  color, 
especially  in  dark  shades,  is  very  liable  to  rub.  This 
can  best  be  obviated  by  building  up  the  shades  with 
successive  dippings;  and  by  thoroughly  washing  the 
finished  goods  in  a  hot  soap  bath.  The  dyed  goods 
are  pretty  certain  to  be  a  little  stiff,  and  therefore  hard 
to  sew  or  cut,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  final  color 
is  composed  of  iron  rust.  When  vegetable  fibres  are 
filled  with  a  mineral  matter  they  are  naturally  stiffer 
and  harder  than  they  were  originally. 

Then  there  is  the  final  objection  on  the  part  of  pro- 
fessional dyers  to  this  color,  as  well  as  to  all  the  other 
developed  colors,  i.e.,  those  colors  fixed  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  It  is  not  easy  to  get  a  smooth,  even  color 
with  them,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  dye  to  shade. 
For  handicraft  work,  where  these  two  points  are  of 
minor  importance  as  compared  with  the  beauty  of  the 
color,  this  objection  is  not  so  serious,  but  where  it  is 
necessary  to  dye  large  amounts  of  yarn  or  cloth  to  a 
definite  shade  with  this,  or  similar,  dyes,  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
far  easier  to  use  a  dyestuff  which  does  not  materially 
change  its  shade  after  the  goods  leave  the  dye-bath. 
Iron  Grey. — Soon  after  the  discovery,  in  different 
localities,  of  the  iron  buff  color,  it  was  discovered  that 
by  the  action  of  various  vegetable  extracts  upon  the 
iron  salts,  dark  grey  stains  could  be  produced  which, 


30  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

under  certain  conditions,  would  be  fairly  fast  to  light 
and  washing. 

This  color  was,  later,  found  to  be  due  to  the  com- 
bination with  iron  of  the  peculiar  vegetable  acid  called 
tannic  acid  or  tannin.  This  is  found  in  small  quanti- 
ties in  the  juices  of  twigs  and  leaves  of  many  varieties 
of  plants,  and,  until  the  introduction  of  the  modern 
dyestuffs,  this  process  offered  the  chief  method  of 
obtaining  grey  or  black  shades  upon  cotton.  At  pres- 
ent it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  used  for  that  purpose,  but 
the  compound  is  still  the  basis  of  most  of  the  writing 
inks  on  the  market. 

To  make  this  color,  the  cloth  is  soaked  for  some 
time  in  a  solution  of  an  iron  salt — nitrate  of  iron, 
formed  by  boiling  a  solution  of  copperas  for  a  minute 
or  two  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  is  preferable 
to  the  untreated  copperas — and  then,  after  being 
wrung  and  slightly  rinsed,  it  is  plunged  into  a  bath 
containing  tannic  acid.  This  can  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing a  few  tablespoon fuls  of  the  dry  tannic  acid  in  some 
water,  or  by  making  a  hot  infusion  of  the  leaves, 
twigs,  or  bark  of  any  plant  or  tree  containing  it.  Tea 
leaves  contain  much  tannin,  and  so  do  unripe  English 
walnuts  and  butternuts.  Acorns,  oak  leaves  with  nut 
galls  on  them,  the  green  twigs  of  alders,  and  hazel- 
nut  bushes,  have  all  been  used  to  form  this  color. 

The  grey  color  quickly  develops  and,  after  rinsing, 
the  material  can  be  dried  and  pressed,  or  dipped  again 
to  obtain  a  deeper  shade,  first  into  the  iron  and  then 
into  the  tannin  bath.  The  color  is  a  pleasant,  soft 
shade  of  grey  or,  if  dyed  deeply,  a  black.  It  is  fast 


- 


PLATE   III.      SAME   TOWELLING   AS   IN    PLATE 

II,  AFTER  IMMERSION  IN  IRON  SPRING       THE 

ROUND     WHITE     PATTERNS     ARE     MADE     BY 

TIEING 


Introduction  31 

to  washing,  and  fairly  so  to  light,  though  it  may  be- 
come rusty  on  standing;  like  the  iron  buff,  it  is  not 
fast  to  acids. 

Some  interesting  examples  of  the  dyeing  of  cotton 
cloth  with  iron  buff  and  iron  grey  are  shown  in 
Plate  I.  They  came  from  the  mineral  springs  at 
Arima,  near  Kobe  in  Japan,  where  the  waters  are  so 
saturated  with  iron  salts,  that  comparatively  short  im- 
mersion, and  exposure  to  air,  will  bring  out  a  deep 
orange  shade.  The  Japanese,  not  content  with  dye- 
ing their  goods  plain  colors,  have  for  many  genera- 
tions utilized  these  springs  in  the  production  of  figures 
and  designs  on  the  cloth.  Plate  V  is  an  example 
of  stencil  work,  where  the  white  patterns  are  made 
by  covering  parts  of  the  cloth  with  a  "  resist  paste  " 
which  protects  whatever  it  is  in  contact  with  from 
the  action  of  the  coloring  agent. 

Plate  II  shows  a  piece  of  soft  calico  on  which 
impressions  of  leaves  have  been  made  by  placing 
fresh  juicy  leaves  between  two  pieces  of  cloth,  and 
beating  them  with  wooden  mallets. 

Plate  III  shows  the  same  piece  of  cloth  as  in  Plate 
II,  after  immersion  in  the  iron  spring,  and  exposure  to 
air.  The  tannin  from  the  leaf  juice  converts  some 
of  the  iron  oxide  into  iron  grey;  while  the  white  fig- 
ures are  made  by  tying  the  cloth  with  string  or  tape 
(Tied  and  Dyed  work)  before  dyeing  it. 

So  far  as  we  can  tell,  these  two  were  the  only 
mineral  colors  known  to  the  ancients.  Several  other 
mineral  colors,  however,  were  in  common  use  by  the 
cotton  dyers  in  the  days  preceding  the  introduction 


32  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

of  modern  dyestuffs,  but  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to 
dwell  here  on  many  of  them.  Yellow  and  orange 
shades  were  obtained  by  impregnating  cloth  with  lead 
salts,  and  then  developing  with  a  bath  of  chromate 
or  bichromate  of  potash,  with  more  or  less  caustic 
alkali  added  for  the  darker  shades. 

Prussian  blue,  too,  was  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
more  expensive  indigo.  This  was  formed  by  using 
the  nitrate  of  iron  for  the  first  bath,  and  then  develop- 
ing the  color  with  a  bath  of  yellow  prussiate  (ferro- 
cyanide)  of  potash.  These  colors,  however,  are  so 
far  inferior  in  their  application,  and  in  fastness  to 
light  and  to  rubbing,  to  the  colors  now  at  our  com- 
mand, that  they  have  disappeared  entirely  for  textile 
work,  though  they  are  still  widely  used  for  pigments. 
Manganese  Bronze  (Manganese  Brown,  Bistre) — 
There  is  one  good  mineral  color,  however,  which  came 
into  use  early  in  the  last  century  and  which,  while 
hardly  ever  used  by  professional  dyers,  is  of  interest 
to  craftsmen.  This  color,  in  its  chemical  composition, 
greatly  resembles  the  iron  buff.  It  is  quite  cheaply 
produced  by  first  impregnating  the  cloth  to  be  dyed 
with  a  solution  of  a  manganese  salt  (manganese  chlo- 
ride is  the  cheapest),  and  then,  by  means  of  a  second 
bath  of  alkali,  forming  a  deposit  on  the  fibre  of  pink 
manganese  hydroxide — corresponding  to  the  greenish 
ferrous  hydroxide — which,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
absorbs  oxygen  and  forms  the  final  brown  color. 

Unfortunately  the  alkali  used  in  this  case  must  be 
caustic  alkali — potassium  hydroxide  or  sodium  hy- 
droxide— and  not  one  of  the  mild  alkalies  like  the 


Introduction  33 

carbonates  or  bicarbonates,  which  will  do  for  the  iron 
color.  And,  therefore,  although  it  is  rather  more 
expensive,  and  is  somewhat  liable  to  weaken  the  fabric, 
it  is  generally  more  convenient  to  obtain  this  color 
by  a  one-bath  process.  A  purple  solution  of  the  salt 
known  as  permanganate  of  potash,  is  prepared  and 
the  cloth  dipped.  After  being  immersed  it  is  wrung 
carefully  and  shaken  out,  and  the  red  or  purplish 
color  gradually  changes  into  the  final  brown.  As  soon 
as  this  change  has  taken  place  the  goods  should  be 
plunged  into  a  hot  soap  bath  and  thoroughly  scoured, 
both  to  remove  any  loosely  adhering  particles  of  color 
which  cause  rubbing,  and  to  prevent  tendering  of  the 
cloth. 

The  latter  danger,  however,  is  always  present  with 
this  process  and,  therefore,  full  shades  should  not  be 
dyed  excepting  on  heavy,  strong  goods  like  rugs  or 
very  coarse  yarns  or  cloth.  Even  then  it  should  be 
done  carefully  and  by  successive  dippings,  with  a  care- 
ful washing,  after  the  color  has  been  developed  in  the 
air,  between  each  bath. 

This  injury  to  the  cloth  which,  hitherto,  has  been 
the  great  drawback  to  the  permanganate  process,  can 
be  avoided  by  dipping  the  goods,  as  soon  as  possible 
after  leaving  the  dye-baths,  into  a  solution  containing 
glucose,  as,  for  instance,  two  or  three  spoonfuls  of 
Karo  (corn  syrup)  or  molasses  in  each  gallon  of  hot 
water.  Directly  the  purple-stained  cloth  touches  this 
solution  the  color  changes  to  brown,  without  affecting 
the  strength  of  the  materials. 

This  color,  like  the  other  mineral  colors,  is  rarely, 


34  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

if  ever,  to  be  used  on  silk,  being  altogether  too  likely 
to  injure  the  texture  and  the  lustre  of  the  material. 

In  at  least  one  instance,  however,  it  has  been  used 
on  animal  fibres  with  considerable  success.  During 
the  critical  part  of  the  Boer  war,  it  was  at  one  time 
necessary  for  England  to  put  as  many  of  her  troops 
as  possible — especially  her  mounted  troops — into  the 
field.  Among  others  the  Scots  Greys,  distinguished 
at  Waterloo  and  made  famous  in  many  other  bloody 
campaigns  as  a  fine  old  fighting  regiment,  were  or- 
dered to  the  front.  There  is  a  tradition,  dating  back 
over  two  hundred  years,  that  the  horses  of  this  regi- 
ment must  all  be  either  white  or  grey  in  color.  Some 
heaven-sent  genius  at  the  Horse  Guards — the  English 
War  Department — hinted  quite  forcibly  to  the 
authorities  that  to  send  out  a  cavalry  regiment  on 
white  horses  to  face  the  Boer  sharpshooters,  was 
rather  a  dangerous  experiment.  The  authorities, 
therefore,  consulted  a  well-known  dyeing  chemist. 
He  advised  them  to  send  down,  on  the  troopship, 
some  kegs  of  permanganate;  and  to  instruct  the  offi- 
cers and  men  to  sponge  each  horse  with  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  the  salt,  every  day  at  "  Stables."  This  was 
done,  and,  in  consequence,  long  before  reaching  Cape 
Town,  the  skin  and  hair  of  every  horse  was  thoroughly 
colored  a  soft,  quiet  shade  of  brown. 

The  color  produced  by  permanganate  varies,  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  solution,  or  rather  with  the 
number  of  dips  in  comparatively  weak  solutions,  from 
a  light  brownish  tan  to  a  full,  rich,  soft,  seal  brown. 
Pleasant  shades,  too,  can  be  obtained  by  dyeing  first 


Introduction  35 

with  the  iron-rust  dye  and  then  covering  with  the 
permanganate.  This  color  is  discharged,  not  only 
from  textiles  but  from  the  hands,  by  soaking  in  a 
solution  of  sodium  hydrosulphite  (commonly  used  in 
dyeing  indigo)  and  then  washing. 

PRACTICAL  DYEING 

Before  proceeding  to  the  practical  dyeing  instruc- 
tion it  is  well  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  equipment 
needed  for  the  work. 

Fortunately  no  elaborate  or  expensive  outfit  is  nec- 
essary, even  for  the  beginner.  And  after  one  has  had 
a  little  experience,  it  is  astonishing  what  an  amount 
of  interesting,  and  even  important  work  can  be  turned 
out  with  a  few  of  the  very  simplest  utensils.  The 
essentials  may  be  set  down  as  follows: 

Dye-pots. 

Heating  devices. 

Stirring  rods,  or  dye-sticks. 

Wringers. 

Drying  arrangements. 

Dye-^pots. — For  this  purpose,  common  agateware 
vessels  are  best  and  most  convenient.  There  should 
be  varying  sizes  to  accommodate  different  amounts  of 
material  to  be  dyed.  The  so-called  "miner's  cups," 
which  are  agateware  cups  holding  a  pint  or  more,  are 
large  enough  for  practical  work,  when  single  skeins 
are  being  dyed.  For  large  pieces  use  the  wash  boilers 


36  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

which  vary  in  capacity  from  one  to  five  gallons.  It 
is  always  best,  especially  for  amateurs,  to  dye  in  one 
batch  enough  material  to  complete  the  work  on  hand, 
whether  rug,  portiere,  or  piece  of  tapestry.  This 
avoids  the  necessity  of  exactly  matching  the  shade 
afterward. 

For  three  and  a  half  to  four  pounds  of  cotton 
rags,  such  as  are  used  in  making  rag  carpets,  three  and 
one-half  gallon  pots  are  about  the  right  size.  This 
amount  of  material  will  be  about  enough  for  the  filling 
for  one  rug  about  6x4  feet,  woven  on  a  hand  loom. 
Heating  Devices. — Work  may  be  done  over  any 
flat-topped  stove  that  burns  wood  or  coal;  gas  is,  of 
course,  an  advantage  and  so  is  an  oil  stove,  as  with 
these  the  heat  may  be  regulated  very  exactly  and 
much  time  saved.  For  actual  work,  a  stove  with 
space  for  four  or  five  pots  is  the  most  convenient  type 
to  use. 

There  should  always  be  one  large  pot  set  aside  for 
heating  water,  another  for  boiling  out  the  raw  goods, 
and  still  a  third  for  boiling  out  and  brightening  the 
finished  materials  with  soap,  when  very  fast  colors 
are  used  on  cotton  or  linen;  and  each  of  these  pots 
should  be  reserved  for  its  special  purpose  and  not  used 
for  dyeing.  This  will  avoid  the  danger  of  staining 
the  goods. 

The  top  of  a  kitchen  range  will  do  for  heating, 
but  whenever  possible,  it  is  best  to  have  a  separate 
stove,  so  placed  that  the  top  of  it  will  not  be  more 
than  about  twenty-four  inches  from  the  ground  or 
floor.  This  enables  the  operator  to  look  down  into 


Introduction  37 

the  dye-pot  and  so  avoid  strain,  and  the  consequent 
excessive  fatigue  while  stirring  the  goods. 
Stirring  Rods. — While  the  material  is  being  dyed,  it 
should  be  kept  in  constant  motion.  When  working 
with  small  amounts  of  material,  or  with  goods  such 
as  straw,  raffia,  muslin,  or  silk  in  skeins,  which  are 
delicate  and  easily  spoiled,  it  is  far  more  satisfactory 
in  every  way  to  use  heavy  glass  rods  for  stirring. 
These  are  rather  expensive.  They  are  about  fif- 
teen inches  in  length  and  well  rounded  at  the  ends. 
If  carefully  handled  and  thoroughly  washed,  they  are 
always  clean  and  smooth.  Care  must,  of  course,  be 
exercised  in  their  use,  as  sudden  variations  of  heat 
and  cold  may  cause  them  to  crack  or  chip,  and  lifting 
or  stirring  large  quantities  of  heavy  materials — any- 
thing above  five  pounds — is  liable  to  break  them.  In 
these  cases,  it  is  best  to  use  wooden  dye-sticks. 
Broomsticks  or  dowel  sticks,  cut  into  two- foot  lengths, 
with  the  ends  rounded  carefully  by  whittling  with  a 
sharp  penknife,  are  excellent  substitutes.  For  care- 
ful work  it  is  necessary  to  have  several  sets  of  wooden 
dye-sticks — two  for  each  main  color  at  least — and 
these  must  be  carefully  washed  each  time  after  using, 
or  they  will  stain  cloth  that  is  being  dyed  light  shades. 
They  are  bound  to  get  soft  and  rotten  before  very 
long,  from  the  action  of  the  alkali  in  the  dye-baths, 
but  they  are  easily  replaced. 

Good  rubber  gloves  are  extremely  useful  while  dye- 
ing, to  protect  the  hands  not  only  from  being  stained 
and  discolored  by  the  dyes,  but  also  from  the  action 
of  the  chemicals — especially  while  dyeing  with  indigo 


38  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

and  other  dyes  wherein  the  caustic  alkalies  are  em- 
ployed. 

After  some  experience  in  the  use  of  dye-sticks, 
however,  it  will  be  found  comparatively  easy  to  handle 
the  materials,  in  and  out  of  the  dye-baths,  with  the 
sticks,  without  at  any  time  taking  hold  of  them  with 
the  hand.  Nothing  demonstrates  more  clearly  the 
skill  of  the  dyer  than  the  ability  to  carry,  immerse 
in  the  dye-bath,  stir,  take  out,  wring,  and  rinse  the 
materials  without  getting  stains  on  either  clothes  or 
ringers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  slopping 
that  can  be  accomplished  by  a  careless,  but  enthusi- 
astic, amateur  must  be  lived  with  to  be  thoroughly 
appreciated. 

Wringers. — Both  before  and  after  dyeing  it  is  very 
important  to  have  at  hand  a  good  clothes  wringer, 
preferably  with  metal  frame.  In  fact,  for  very  care- 
ful work  there  should  be  two  wringers;  one  to  wring 
out  the  raw  materials  after  boiling  them  in  soap  and 
water,  or,  if  clean,  in  plain  water,  to  insure  that  they 
are  thoroughly  and  evenly  wet;  and  the  other  to  wring 
out  the  excess  of  dye-liquor  from  the  goods  before 
rinsing,  or,  as  in  some  cases,  before  hanging  up  to 
oxidize.  The  rubber  rolls  of  these  wringers  should 
be  kept  clean  by  scouring  with  soap  and  sapolio 
immediately  after  finishing  the  day's  work,  and  by 
carefully  rinsing  free  from  dye-liquor. 

It  is  always  well  to  keep  on  hand  near  the  wringer 
a  supply  of  clean  blotting  paper,  or  cheap  filter  paper, 
or  even  soft,  dry  cheesecloth  or  muslin.  For  by  wrap- 
ping the  materials  that  have  just  been  dyed,  in  any 


Introduction  39 

of  these,  and  then  running  them  backwards  and  for- 
wards through  the  wringer,  it  is  possible  to  dry  them 
with  a  minimum  of  time  and  exposure.  This  is  par- 
ticularly important  in  the  case  of  natural  and  artificial 
silks,  either  in  skeins  or  scarfs,  of  ostrich  feathers, 
and  of  other  light  and  fragile  materials. 
Drying  Arrangements. — Sufficient  room  should  be 
provided  for  hanging  up  the  cloth  to  dry.  An  ordi- 
nary clothes-line,  conveniently  fastened,  is  the  best 
means  of  support.  For  special  purposes,  where  the 
material  handled  is  very  delicate  or  where  the  work 
is  done  in  a  classroom,  a  simple  clothes-horse  made 
of  thick  glass  tubing,  one  inch  or  so  in  diameter  and 
supported  on  a  wooden  frame,  will  occupy  the  least 
possible  space  and  give  the  best  support. 


CHAPTER  II 

MODERN  DYESTUFFS 

THE  whole  art  and  practice  of  dyeing  was  com- 
pletely revolutionized  once  and  forever,  by  the 
discovery   in    1856   of   the   artificial   dyestuff 
named  mauveine,  or,  more  commonly,  mauve,  a  name, 
by  the  way,  derived  from  the  French  name  of  the 
violet-colored  mallow  flower. 

The  discovery  was  made  accidentally,  by  a  young 
chemical  student,  William  Henry  Perkin,  while  ex- 
perimenting in  a  very  crude  and  simple  way,  with  a 
view  to  forming  artificial  quinine  from  a  curious  oily 
body  known  as  aniline.  This  aniline  was  originally 
prepared  by  distilling  indigo  in  a  dry  retort,  and  it 
had  received  its  name  from  the  native  Javanese  word 
"  anil,"  meaning  indigo.  While  thus  prepared  it  was, 
of  course,  very  expensive.  But  about  this  time 
methods  were  invented  for  obtaining  this  same  com- 
pound in  practically  unlimited  quantities  from  coal 
tar — that  heavy,  foul-smelling  refuse  of  gas  works — 
which,  up  to  that  time,  had  been  not  only  useless  but 
actually  a  source  of  annoyance  and  expense  to  the  gas 
companies. 

Perkin  conceived  the  idea  that,  by  partially  burn- 
ing or  oxidizing  it,  this  aniline  might  be  changed  into 

40 


Modern  Dyestuffs  41 

quinine.  He  made  the  experiment  and  there  resulted 
a  black  molasses-like  mass,  very  far  removed  from  the 
white  crystals  he  was  hoping  for.  But  by  testing  this 
with  various  chemicals,  he  found  that  hot  alcohol  dis- 
solved part  of  it,  and  turned  it  into  a  violet  liquid 
which  had  the  power  to  dye  silk  and  wool  the  same 
bright  color.  Finding  that  the  color  was  fairly  fast 
to  light,  and  that  it  could  be  produced  without  too 
much  expense,  he  took  out  a  patent  and,  with  the  aid 
of  his  father  and  brother,  set  up  near  Manchester, 
England,  the  first  factory  for  artificial  dyestuffs. 

His  discoveries  were  at  once  published,  and  chem- 
ists all  over  the  world  began  to  manufacture  and 
experiment  with  the  new  dyestuffs.  Great  factories 
were  started  all  over  Europe.  From  this  beginning 
the  manufacture  of  coal-tar  dyestuffs,  and  more  re- 
cently all  their  allied  compounds,  has  become  one  of 
the  most  important  and  most  profitable  of  all  chemi- 
cal industries. 

The  dyes  first  discovered,  the  so-called  "  Basic 
dyes,"  were  of  great  brilliancy  and  strength;  but  they 
were  not  of  any  particular  beauty  when  used  individu- 
ally. Compared  with  the  vegetable  colors  which 
preceded  them,  and  especially  the  same  shades  we  are 
accustomed  to  see  in  nature,  these  dyes  were  hard, 
coarse,  crude,  and  very  inartistic.  This  could  be 
remedied,  however,  by  mixing  two  or  three  of  them 
together,  such  mixture  tending  to  soften  the  different 
colors  and  blend  all  into  pleasant  and  delicate  shades. 

A  more  serious  difficulty  was  the  fact  that  those 
early  dyestuffs  were  usually  quite  fugitive  to  light  or, 


42  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

at  any  rate,  far  less  fast  than  the  best  of  the  vege- 
table dyes  that  preceded  them.  Besides,  they  did  not 
fade  true.  In  other  words,  a  piece  of  cloth  might  to- 
day be  a  bright  red,  and  after  a  few  days  of  exposure 
to  the  sunlight,  the  exposed  portions  might  turn  a  yel- 
low, a  white,  or  even  some  dark  color;  and,  in  any 
case,  the  change  would  entirely  spoil  the  original  color 
scheme. 

By  1868,  however,  the  artificial  manufacture  of 
alizarine,  first  by  two  German  chemists,  and  then  by 
Perkin  himself,  served  to  open  up  another  whole  class 
of  new  dyestuffs,  which,  when  submitted  to  the  proper 
tests,  proved  to  be  exceedingly  fast  both  to  light  and 
to  washing.  In  consequence,  within  a  few  years  after 
this  discovery,  the  commercial  use  of  madder  was 
everywhere  abandoned.  Chemists  could  now  produce 
on  cotton,  linen,  wool,  and  silk,  practically  the  whole 
range  of  colors,  brilliant  and  dull,  hard  and  soft,  light 
and  dark,  not  only  of  a  beauty,  but  of  a  fastness  to 
light  and  to  washing,  never  before  surpassed,  if  indeed 
equalled. 

Since  that  time,  not  a  year  has  gone  by  without 
scores  of  new  dyestuffs  being  put  on  the  market  by 
some  of  the  great  color  houses.  Of  late  years  special 
efforts  have  been  made  to  simplify  dyeing  processes, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  insure  the  fastness  as 
well  as  the  beauty  of  the  colors.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  possible  for  the  veriest  amateur,  with 
practically  no  previous  knowledge  of  chemistry  or 
of  dyeing,  and  with  only  intelligence  enough  to 
follow  some  simple  directions,  to  get,  in  one  bath, 


AT  THE  AGE  Ol; 


AT  THE  AGE  OF  22 


AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  COAL-TAR 
COLOR  JUBILEE  — 50  YEARS 
AFTER  HIS  DISCOVERY  OF 
MAUVEINE 


SIR 


H.  PERKIN 


Modern  Dyestuffs  43 

with  very  little  expenditure  of  time,  an  immense  vari- 
ety of  shades  that  are  exceedingly  fast  to  light  and 
to  washing.  A  very  few  years  ago  this  result  could 
not  possibly  have  been  obtained,  except  by  some  expert 
dyer,  and  then  only  after  long  and  tedious,  as  well  as 
difficult,  processes. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  constant  complaint  that 
it  is  now  impossible  to  get  goods  dyed  or  printed  in 
good,  fast  colors.  For  instance,  take  the  brilliant  scar- 
let calico  commonly  known  as  Turkey  red.  In  the 
days  of  our  grandfathers  a  piece  of  cloth  dyed  Turkey 
red  would  stand  rain  and  sun,  washing  and  scouring, 
and  the  fibre  would  wear  out  before  the  color  would 
fade.  But  nowadays,  if  you  buy  Turkey  red  cloth 
for  the  purpose  of  covering  cushions  for  a  piazza- 
lounge,  you  will  be  fortunate  if  the  color  does  not  be- 
gin to  change  after  three  or  four  days  in  the  open  air. 

The  reason  is  simple.  In  the  old  days  the  only  way 
to  get  that  particular  shade  was  by  dyeing  the  cloth 
with  ground-up  madder  root,  through  a  series  of 
operations  lasting  the  best  part  of  two  months.  Now 
any  capable  dyer  would  be  able  to  dye  cotton  that 
exact  shade  with  any  of,  say,  twenty  different  colors, 
most  of  which  would  not  require  more  than  one  or 
two  hours  to  dye.  Out  of  these  twenty  dyestuffs, 
four  or  five,  rather  more  expensive  than  the  rest, 
would  give  just  as  fast,  just  as  brilliant,  and  just 
as  strong  color  as  the  good  old  madder  color.  But 
the  rest,  which  are  distinctly  cheaper  and  easier  to 
apply,  would  furnish  goods  which  would  look  ex- 


44  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

actly  the  same  to  the  average  purchaser,  but  which 
might  not  last  any  time  at  all. 

Naturally,  the  average  manufacturer  carefully  in- 
structs his  dyer  to  furnish  him  with  the  "  cheap  and 
nasty  "  goods,  not  only  because  it  costs  less  money, 
but  also,  unfortunately,  because  he  reasons  that  "  it 
will  be  good  for  business."  The  manufacturer  has 
the  greatest  sympathy  with  the  inclination  of  the  fas- 
tidious housewife  to  throw  away  anything  that  looks 
faded,  and  to  buy  in  its  place  something  new  and 
fresh.  Curtains  or  portieres  that  hold  their  original 
shade  indefinitely,  he  has  little  or  no  patience  with.  A 
calico  dress  that  keeps  its  color  so  that  it  can  be  worn 
for  a  second  summer,  is  an  abomination  not  to  be 
endured.  And  in  every  case,  when  complaint  is  made, 
it  is  always  said  to  be  the  fault  of  the  chemist  who 
produced  and  put  on  the  market  such  "  horrid,  fugi- 
tive dyes." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  simply  a  case  of  picking 
and  choosing.  There  have  been  discovered,  so  far, 
several  thousand  different  coal-tar  dyestuffs  of  all  sorts 
and  kinds.  Out  of  these,  probably  one  hundred,  or  less, 
can  be  considered  really  fast  to  both  light  and  wash- 
ing. The  remaining  ones,  most  of  which  never  were 
considered  valuable  enough  to  put  on  the  market,  vary 
in  degrees  of  fastness,  the  poorest  being  simply  stains 
which  will  "  bleed  "  indefinitely  with  moderate  wash- 
ing, and  which  will  turn  almost  any  color  after  ex- 
posure for  a  few  hours  to  sun  and  weather. 

In  the  following  pages,  considerable  pains  will  be 
taken  to  emphasize  the  names  and  properties  of  the 


Modern  Dyestuffs  45 

very  best  and  fastest  dyestuffs  in  the  different  classes,* 
so  that  the  results  of  work  done  with  them  can  be 
depended  upon. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  thing,  in  connection 
with  the  whole  subject  of  the  artificial  dyestuffs,  is  the 
enormous  influence  that  they  have  had  upon  the  life 
of  the  whole  human  race.  This  influence  was  but 
slightly  appreciated,  even  by  the  chemists  themselves, 
until  a  few  years  ago.  The  awakening  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  discovery 
of  mauveine,  when  from  one  end  of  the  world  to 
the  other,  honors  were  showered  upon  Sir  William 
Henry  Perkin,  then  grown  old  and  nearing  the  end 
of  his  useful  and  prosperous  life.  It  was  then  an- 
nounced, and  was  for  the  first  time  generally  recog- 
nized as  true,  that  no  one  of  the  great  discoveries  of 
the  nineteenth  century — the  steam  locomotive,  the 
steamship,  the  telephone,  the  telegraph,  the  gas  light, 
the  electric  light,  and  the  rest — had  been  more  im- 
portant to  the  world  at  large  than  the  discovery  of 
the  first  coal  tar  dye.  And  probably  never  in  the 
history  of  the  world  have  such  enormous  results  been 
produced  from  a  single  discovery,  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  discoverer  himself. 

THE  ARTIFICIAL   DYESTUFFS 

The  artificial  dyestuffs  form  such  a  large  body  of 
complicated  chemical  compounds,  that  at  first  glance  it 
would  seem  hopeless  for  any  one  who  is  not  a  trained 
*In  some  classes  there  are  no  absolutely  fast  dyestuffs. 


46  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

chemist,  to  attempt  to  get  any  clear  or  definite  ideas 
about  them.  This,  indeed,  would  be  the  case  if  any 
attempt  were  made  to  study  them  chemically,  i.e.,  with 
reference  to  their  composition,  or  their  method  of 
manufacture;  but  when  it  comes  to  the  application 
of  them  to  the  various  textile  fabrics  and  other  ma- 
terials, for  which  dyes  are  valuable,  we  soon  find 
that  the  problem  is  not  so  very  difficult  after  all. 

To  be  sure  there  are  many  hundreds  of  different 
dyes  on  the  market  now,  great  numbers  of  which  are 
known  under  three  or  four  different  trade  names,  ac- 
cording to  the  trade-mark  of  each  particular  manu- 
facturer. But  besides  the  great  manufacturers,  and 
their  accredited  agents,  there  are  numerous  retail 
agencies  all  over  the  country,  large  and  small,  which 
make  a  business  of  distributing  dyes  made  by  the 
great  concerns.  Some  of  these  are  very  energetic, 
and  have  pushed  the  sale  of  artificial  dyestuffs  in  ten- 
and  fifteen-cent  packages,  until  in  almost  every  village, 
large  enough  to  boast  of  a  decent  country  store,  these 
dyes  can  be  obtained. 

It  is  common  to  hear  these  dyes  sneered  at  and 
abused.  They  are  frequently  referred  to,  especially 
by  those  of  "  artistic  tastes,"  as  harsh  and  crude  in 
color,  fugitive  to  light  and  washing,  and,  in  short, 
generally  inferior  and  worthless  products.  This  is 
not  the  case.  They  are,  in  some  cases,  individual 
dyestuffs,  and  in  other  cases,  mixtures,  generally  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  colors  next  to  be  described, 
the  Salt  dyes;  and  very  good,  if  not  indeed  the  very 
best  specimens  of  that  class.  These  Salt  dyes,  until 


Modern  Dyestuffs  47 

the  last  few  years,  were  far  from  fast,  either  to  light 
or  washing;  but  the  more  recent  members  of  the  class 
are  much  more  satisfactory,  and  these  colors,  too,  are 
found  in  the  fifteen-cent  packages. 

Nor,  too,  can  objection  bv  fairly  taken  to  the  shades 
as  being  crude  and  harsh.  That  is  all  a  matter  of 
taste  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  dyer.  There  is  no 
better  practice  in  dyeing  than  to  take  the  very  hardest, 
clearest,  most  brilliant  red,  blue,  and  yellow  colors  that 
can  be  found  at  the  corner  grocery  and,  following 
the  directions  on  the  packages,  proceed  to  dye  yarn 
or  cheesecloth  with  them,  at  first  using  the  individual 
dyes,  and  afterwards  modifying  the  shade  of  one 
dye  with  traces  of  each  of  the  other  two.  The  soft- 
ness and  richness  of  the  tones  that  can  be  thus  ob- 
tained will  satisfy  the  most  critical. 

The  real  objection  to  these  widely  distributed  pop- 
ular dyes  is  a  very  different  one.  They  are  not  sold 
under  their  own  names,  and  therefore  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  identify  them.  To  be  sure,  from  the 
accompanying  directions  it  is  possible  for  a  trained 
dyer  to  recognize  at  once  the  class  to  which  the  dye- 
stuff  belongs.  But  it  is  impossible  for  him,  excepting 
after  a  long,  tedious  and  often  very  troublesome  anal- 
ysis, to  tell  just  what  member  or  members  of 
that  particular  class  is  contained  in  any  given  pack- 
age. For  this  reason  the  dyer  who  has  to  depend 
on  them  for  an  important  piece  of  work  is  in  much 
the  same  position  as  a  doctor  would  be  who  had  to 
treat  a  difficult  case  with  patent  medicines  com- 
pounded after  secret  formulae. 


48  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

In  the  following  chapters,  a  discussion  of  each 
class  of  dyestuffs,  and  an  explanation  of  their  applica- 
tion and  general  properties  will  be  followed  by  lists 
of  three  or  four  of  the  very  best  colors,  sold  by  the 
New  York  agents  of  six  of  the  largest  and  most 
reliable  color  manufacturers. 

Workers  wishing  to  obtain  these  dyes  in  compara- 
tively large  quantities,  say  one  pound  and  upwards, 
can  get  them  by  writing  directly  to  the  addresses  in 
the  following  table: 


Badische—  The  Badische  Anilin  &  Soda  Fabrik, 
128  Duane  St., 
N.  Y.  City. 

Cassella—  The  Cassella  Co., 
184  Front  St., 
N.  Y.  City. 

Elberfeld—The  Farbenfabriken  of  Elberfeld  Co., 
117  Hudson  St., 
N.  Y.  City. 

Kalle—       Kalle  &  Co., 

530  Canal  St., 
N.  Y.  City. 

Klipstein—A.  Klipstein  &  Co., 

Agent  for  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  of  Basle, 
654  Greenwich  St., 
N.  Y.  City. 

Metz —        Farbwerke-Hoechst  Co.,  formerly  H.  A.  Metz  &  Co., 
Agent  for  the  Meister  Lucius  &  Bruning  Co., 
122  Hudson   St., 
N.  Y.  City. 


N.  B.  Further  information  concerning  dyestuffs,  ap- 
paratus, textiles,  chemicals,  etc.,  connected  with  this 
work  may  be  obtained  on  writing  to  the  author  at  7 
West  43rd  St.,  New  York. 


Modern  Dyestuffs  49 

THE  NAMING  OF   MODERN  DYESTUFFS 

It  is  important  to  remember  that,  in  order  to  iden- 
tify a  color  by  name,  it  is  necessary  to  know  three 
things:  first,  the  trade  name;  second,  the  shade,  or 
distinguishing,  letter;  and  third,  the  manufacturer 
or  agent.  The  trade  name  sometimes  bears  a  ref- 
erence to  the  class,  properties,  or  color  of  the 
dye,  as  "  fast  acid  blue  " ;  or  to  its  chemical  com- 
position, as  "  methylene  blue,"  or  "  diamine  red  " ; 
but  in  most  cases  it  is  simply  an  arbitrary  name,  given 
by  the  original  discoverer  when  the  patents  were 
issued,  or  assigned  later  by  the  manufacturer  or  his 
local  agents. 

The  letter  or  letters,  following  the  name,  refer  gen- 
erally to  the  shade,  as  for  instance,  B  for  blue,  R 
for  red,  Y  or  G  for  yellow  (German  gelb),  and  so  on. 
Thus  "  methyl  violet "  is  sold  in  brands  running  all 
the  way  from  6  B  to  6  R — that  is,  from  full  purple 
shades  that  are  very  close  to  blue,  to  bright  violet 
shades,  very  close  to  red.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
letter  refers  to  the  composition  of  the  dye  or  its 
class,  as  "  fuchsine  S  "  (German  sailer)  often  called 
acid  fuchsine  or  acid  magenta;  or  "  alizarine  blue,  D," 
when  the  D  indicates  a  "  direct "  cotton  color.  And 
sometimes  the  letter  F  is  used  to  indicate  fastness  to 
light,  in  which  case  "  F  F  "  would  signify  a  brand 
of  very  unusual  fastness,  for  that  particular  class  of 
colors  at  any  rate. 

But  not  infrequently  the  letter  is  merely  a  mark 
applied  for  purposes  of  identification,  whose  signifi- 


50  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

cance  cannot  easily  be  learned  by  those  not  in  the 
business  of  color  selling,  even  when  it  is  not  a  secret 
closely  guarded  by  the  particular  firm  supplying  the 
dyestuff. 

For  this  reason,  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  or 
agent  should  always  be  added  to  the  color  name  and 
letter,  if  it  is  important  to  get  a  particular  color  in 
any  case.  The  best  of  the  older  dyes  are  manufac- 
tured by  all  of  the  larger  firms,  of  substantially  the 
same  strength  and  shades,  although  often  not  under 
the  same  names.  The  later  colors,  whose  patents  have 
not  expired,  are  of  course  the  individual  property  of 
the  different  manufacturers,  and  can  be,  and  are, 
marketed  by  them  under  any  name  they  like  to  give 
them.  Accordingly  it  frequently  happens  that  two 
different  firms  may  sell,  under  the  same  name,  two 
entirely  different  colors;  it  would  be  impossible  to 
tell  which  dyestuff  was  intended  unless  the  firm  name 
were  attached. 

But  with  these  three  essentials  correctly  given — 
name,  brand,  and  maker — a  color  can  be  identified  and 
obtained  true  in  composition  and  shade,  even  after  the 
lapse  of  many  years. 


Modern  Dyestufifs 


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CHAPTER  III 
DIRECT  COTTON  OR  SALT  COLORS 

A1ONG  the  many  changes  made  in  the  art  of  dyeing 
since  the  introduction  of  the  coal-tar  dyestuffs, 
perhaps  the  most  important  has  been  the  gradual 
overcoming  of  the  necessity  for  mordanting  the  textiles 
before  coloring  them  in  the  dye-bath.  Almost  all 
of  the  old  vegetable  dyes  were  mordant  dyes;  that  is, 
the  color  could  not  be  fastened  to  the  fibre,  whether 
wool,  cottpn,  linen,  or  even  silk,  unless  the  latter  had 
been  impregnated  with  some  chemical  which  would  act 
as  a  mordant  to — (i.e.,  would  combine  with  and  hold) 
the  color.  These  mordants  were,  in  general,  the  salts 
of  some  metal,  aluminium,  tin,  chromium,  and  iron 
salts  being  the  ones  in  common  use;  and  the  processes 
involved  in  properly  mordanting  the  goods  were  in 
many  cases — notably  in  the  case  of  madder  and  the 
Turkey  red  process — far  more  difficult  and  tedious 
and  expensive  than  the  actual  dyeing. 

The  first  dyestuffs  discovered,  the  true  aniline  dyes, 
which  were  manufactured  directly  from  aniline  and 
from  substances  strongly  resembling  aniline  in  chem- 
ical composition,  were  at  once  found  to  act  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner  on  textile  fibres.  Animal  fibres  like 
wool  and  silk,  fur  and  leather,  were  dyed  by  them 
directly,  without  the  use  of  any  mordant  at  all.  If 

53 


54  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  dyestuff  were  dissolved  in  water  (the  addition 
of  a  little  acid  makes  the  color  dissolve  more  readily, 
but  is  without  other  effect)  and  a  wet  skein  of  wool 
or  silk  were  immersed  in  it,  and  a  little  heat  applied, 
the  color  would  leave  the  liquid,  and  fasten  itself 
firmly  on  to  the  goods. 

But  with  cotton  and  linen  and  other  vegetable 
fibres,  these  dyes  would  not  work  so  well.  When 
these  materials  are  warmed  in  such  a  dye-bath,  the 
color  does  not  adhere  to  the  fibres,  but  washes  off 
directly  in  a  hot  soap  bath,  if  not,  indeed,  under  a 
stream  of  clear  hot  water.  This  was  noticed  by 
Perkin  very  soon  after  his  famous  discovery,  and, 
wishing  to  use  his  new  color  for  dyeing  cotton  and 
linen  as  well  as  silk  and  wool,  he  set  to  work  to 
discover  how  to  prepare  these  materials;  in  short, 
how  to  mordant  them  so  that  they  too  would  take 
firm  hold  of  the  color.  As  will  be  described  later  in 
the  chapter  on  Basic  colors,  his  experiments  soon  led 
to  the  introduction  and  the  use  of  tannic  acid  and 
tartar  emetic  combined,  in  a  process  widely  used  to 
this  day. 

The  next  class  of  dyestuffs  discovered  were  the 
so-called  acid  colors,  thus  named  because  they  all  ex- 
hibited distinctly  acid  properties — that  is,  they  would 
form  salts  with  the  substances  known  as  bases  (of 
which  last,  by  the  way,  aniline  is  an  important  mem- 
ber). These  colors,  like  the  earlier  ones,  would  dye 
the  animal  fibres  directly,  but  would  not  color  the 
vegetable  fibres,  unless  the  latter  were  carefully  mor- 
danted with  alumina,  or  iron  oxide,  or  some  similar 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  55 

metallic  base.  And  even  this  treatment  does  not  give 
colors  that  are  fast  to  washing,  so  these  acid  colors 
are  never  used  on  cotton  or  linen. 

After  this  came  the  discovery  of  alizarine,  and  an 
important  series  of  very  fast  and  very  valuable  dyes, 
all  of  which  were  characteristic  mordant  colors.  Even 
wool  and  silk,  as  well  as  every  other  textile,  must  be 
carefully  mordanted  with  aluminium,  chromium,  or 
iron  salts,  in  order  to  have  any  coloring  effect  pro- 
duced by  these  dyestuffs.  This  is  the  chief  reason 
why,  in  spite  of  their  beauty  and  great  permanence, 
the  alizarine  and  other  mordant  colors  are  being  less 
used  every  year.  At  the  end  of  some  twelve  or  thir- 
teen years  after  the  discovery  of  .the  aniline  colors, 
therefore,  it  was  still  impossible  to  dye  cotton  with 
them  without  a  more  or  less  elaborate  mordanting 
process.  And  yet  the  problem  did  not  seem  to  be  an 
impossible  one.  One  of  the  natural  dyes,  the  safflower, 
already  mentioned,  has  the  property  of  dyeing  cotton 
pretty,  and  not  very  fugitive,  shades  of  pink  and  rose 
colors,  directly,  without  the  necessity  for  any  mor- 
dant; and  if  a  natural  dyestuff  could  do  that  why 
could  not  some  artificial  ones? 

Some  thirty  years  ago,  a  chemist  (one  story  says 
that  it  was  a  laboratory  boy)  while  experimenting 
with  a  dyestuff  which  was  then  a  recent  discovery 
— Congo  red,  a  very  brilliant  but  fugitive  and 
unstable  scarlet  color — noticed  that  while  filtering 
a  hot  solution  of  it  through  filter  paper,  the  paper 
was  stained  deeply,  and,  which  was  more  important, 
the  color  was  not  easily  washed  out  with  hot  water. 


56  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

This  excited  his  curiosity,  and  after  following  the 
matter  up  a  little,  he  found  that  not  only  this  Congo 
red,  but  a  whole  series  of  dyestuffs  formed  in  the  same 
general  way,  had  the  power  of  dyeing  cotton  directly. 
This  discovery  has  practically  revolutionized  the  whole 
art  of  cotton  dyeing.  From  these  few  bright  and 
pretty,  but  distinctly  untrustworthy  dyes,  which  were 
at  once  named  and  advertised  as  "  direct  cotton 
colors/'  have  sprung  great  numbers  of  dyestuffs — 
several  hundreds  at  least — of  every  conceivable  shade, 
and  of  late  years  of  every  conceivable  degree  of  fast- 
ness to  light.  All  resemble  the  original  Congo  red 
in  that  they  will  dye  cotton  and  linen,  if  not  abso- 
lutely fast,  at  any  rate  very  fairly  fast  to  washing, 
in  one  bath,  without  the  need  of  any  mordants. 

This,  of  course,  means  that  the  cost  of  dyeing  cloth 
with  these  dyes  is  very  much  less  than  with  the  other 
classes  mentioned.  And,  by  the  way,  it  also  explains 
why,  under  the  name  of  Turkey  red,  so  many  ex- 
tremely bad  colors  have  been  sold.  To  dye  Turkey 
red  on  cotton,  using  alizarine,  and  with  the  most  im- 
proved and  simplified  methods,  necessitates  at  least 
six  or  seven  different  steps,  each  of  which  requires 
not  only  time  and  expense,  but  great  skill  and  care; 
and  any  one  of  them,  if  carelessly  performed,  may 
spoil  the  goods.  On  the  other  hand,  a  mere  beginner, 
by  using  one  of  the  early,  bright,  direct  colors  (quite 
cheap  in  itself,  because  the  patents  have  expired)  can, 
by  boiling  the  goods  for  half  an  hour  in  a  dye-bath 
with  a  little  soap  and  salt  in  it,  produce  a  piece  of 
cloth  dyed  almost  the  exact  shade  of  the  old  Turkey 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  57 

red,  for  probably  one-third,  or  one-quarter  of  the 
price.  It  will  look  the  same  on  the  shop  counter;  will 
probably  sell  just  as  well  to  the  average,  or  even  to 
the  painstaking  customer;  but  when  exposed  to  air 
and  light  for  a  few  weeks,  perhaps  even  for  a  few 
days,  will  lose  its  brilliancy,  and  turn  some  queer,  dull 
shade,  probably  of  purple. 

Indeed  this  particular  substitution  has  been  going 
on  for  some  years  on  a  large  scale;  and  at  one  time 
promised  to  be  of  some  international  importance.  The 
Turkey  red  dyers  in  Manchester,  a  few  years  ago, 
complained  bitterly  to  the  English  Government  that 
their  market  in  India  was  falling  off  very  seriously; 
and  they  demanded  an  investigation,  to  know  what 
was  the  matter. 

After  careful  inquiry  by  the  local  officials,  word 
came  back  that  there  was  no  difference  in  the  taste 
of  the  people  for  bright  scarlet  clothes  and  headgear. 
Just  as  much  red  was  worn  as  ever  before.  But  active 
agents  of  the  large  German  color  houses  had  been 
going  through  the  country,  introducing  some  of  these 
cheap  direct  cotton  scarlets  and  showing  the  natives 
how  to  use  them.  And  in  consequence,  up  and  down 
India  in  all  the  little  towns,  even  in  the  villages,  local 
dyers  were  at  work  who,  for  a  few  cents,  would 
dye  up  an  old  piece  of  calico  bright  red.  When  it 
became  faded  again  in  a  few  weeks,  they  would  dye 
it  over  again  for  a  very  small  sum,  thus  renewing 
the  same  piece  whenever  it  was  desirable  to  appear  in 
bright,  new  clothes. 
Names. — These  dyes  have  long  been  made  by  all  of 


58  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  great  firms,  although  two  or  three  have  made  more 
of  a  specialty  of  them  than  the  rest.  It  was  soon 
found  that  the  presence  of  common  (table)  salt  in 
the  dyestuffs  was  valuable,  as  lessening  the  waste  of 
dyestuff  in  the  dye-liquor,  and  also  increasing  the  fast- 
ness to  washing  of  the  dyed  goods.  For  this  reason 
the  common  name  given  to  this  class  is  that  of  "  Salt 
Colors."  Owing,  however,  to  the  fact  that  Congo 
red,  the  first  discovered  of  the  whole  class,  was  de- 
rived from  the  chemical  known  as  benzidine,  these 
salt  colors  are  sometimes  referred  to,  in  general,  as 
the  "  Congo,"  or  as  the  "  benzidine  "  dyes.  Besides 
this  they  are  frequently  known  as  "  cotton  colors," 
or  "  direct  cotton  colors."  The  different  manufac- 
turers, however,  have  assigned  certain  class  names  to 
their  own  dyestuffs,  as  follows: 


Benzo  (Elberfeld)  ;  Diamine  (Cassella)  ;  Dianil 
Mikado   (Elberfeld)  ;  Naphthamine   (Kalle)  ;  Oxamine 
(Badische)  ;  Phenamine   {Badische}  . 

Uses.  —  These  colors  are  chiefly  used  for  dyeing  cot- 
ton, linen,  and  paper.  They  take  particularly  well  on 
mercerized  'cotton,  and  on  some  varieties  of  artificial 
silk.  They  can  also  be  used  to  dye  wool  and  silk,  and, 
indeed,  in  many  cases  give  colors  faster,  both  to  light 
and  to  washing,  on  these  fibres  than  on  cotton.  As 
a  rule  they  will  not  dye  animal  fibres  excepting  at  a 
high  temperature  —  near  the  boiling  point  —  and  in  an 
acid  bath.  Whereas  cotton  and  linen  are  preferably 
dyed  in  an  alkaline  or  at  least  a  neutral  bath,  and, 
while  they  must  be  boiled  in  the  dye-bath  for  at  all 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  59 

permanent  results,  will  take  the  color  as  a  stain  at 
quite  low  temperatures. 

For  this  reason  these  dyes  are  often  used  for  dye- 
ing even  shades  in  one  bath,  upon  mixed  goods — that 
is,  wool  and  cotton,  cotton  and  silk,  etc.  The  goods 
are  first  dyed  in  a  lukewarm  bath  till  the  cotton  is 
nearly  the  proper  shade,  and  then,  on  heating,  the 
wool  or  silk  will  take  up  the  color  and,  before  long, 
catch  up  with  the  cotton.  It  must,  however,  be  re- 
membered that  on  cotton  and  linen  these  dyes  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  at  all  fast  to  washing,  unless  they  have  been 
well  boiled  with  the  goods.  When  dyed  on  silk  at 
a  boil,  they  are  fast  to  hot  soap  and  water,  a  fact 
which,  sometimes,  is  of  much  importance. 

DYEING  DIRECTIONS 

Dye-bath. — The  color  must  first  be  dissolved  in  water, 
care  being  taken  not  to  leave  any  undissolved  lumps  or 
specks  of  color  floating  around  in,  or  settled  at  the 
bottom  of,  the  dye-bath.  For  this  reason  it  is  gen- 
erally best,  in  all  dyeing  operations,  first  of  all  to 
make  a  decidedly  strong  solution  of  the  color,  by 
dissolving  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  (depending 
of  course  on  the  amount  of  goods  to  be  dyed)  in  hot 
water,  in  a  pitcher  or  saucepan.  In  the  dyehouse  this 
would  be  called  a  "  stock  solution/'  and  would  always 
be  made  of  a  definite  strength, — say  five  parts  of 
color  to  one  hundred  of  water — and  kept  well  covered 
up.  Sometimes  in  hot  weather  it  would  be  treated 
with  a  little  preservative  like  benzoate  of  soda,  so 


60  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

that  it  could  be  used  at  any  time  it  was  needed.  When 
this  color  solution  is  added  to  the  dye-bath,  it  should 
always  be  carefully  strained  through  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth or  any  other  fine  medium  that  will  catch  the 
specks  and  undissolved  lumps.  Otherwise  spots  are 
liable  to  appear,  on  the  finished  goods,  which  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  eradicate  without  stripping  off 
every  trace  of  color  from  the  dyed  material. 
Water. — The  dye-bath  is  prepared  with  plain  water. 
The  amount  necessary  for  each  lot  of  goods  can 
only  be  told  by  experience.  For  some  classes  of  dyes, 
like  the  Acid  colors  and  the  Basic  colors,  to  be  de- 
scribed later,  the  quantity  of  water  makes  but  little 
difference.  But  for  dark  shades  with  these  Salt  colors 
it  is  best  not  to  have  more  than  enough  water  to  thor- 
oughly soak,  and  comfortably  cover,  the  wetted  goods, 
with  enough  room  to  stir  and  turn  them  easily.  The 
dye-bath  is  now  set  on  the  stove  to  warm  up  and, 
when  dyeing  light  or  medium  shades,  some  soap  is 
usually  dissolved  in  it.  This  is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary but  helps  to  make  the  color  go  on  more  evenly, 
and  penetrate  the  fibres  better. 

Soap. — For  dyeing  purposes  in  general,  any  pure, 
carefully  made  soap  acts  satisfactorily.  For  silk  dye- 
ing, and  especially  for  silk  finishing,  it  is  said  that 
greater  lustre  can  be  gained  with  olive  oil  (Castile) 
soap.  But  when  this  cannot  be  obtained,  Ivory  soap 
or  Pears'  soap  or,  in  fact,  any  good  brand  of  bath  or 
toilet  soap  will  do  almost  as  well.  For  the  washing 
and  finishing  of  wool  and  silk  the  use  of  strong  laun- 
dry soaps  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  because  they 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  61 

usually  contain  alkali,  in  the  form  of  borax  or  of  car- 
bonate of  soda,  which  is  liable  to  "  tender  the  goods." 
For  cotton  and  linen  dyeing  and  finishing,  this  does 
not  make  any  difference.  The  easiest  way  to  add 
the  soap  to  the  dye-bath  is  to  use  it  in  one  of  the 
wire  soap-shakers,  which  has  a  convenient  handle,  and 
holds  half  a  cake  or  even  a  whole  cake  of  soap  at  one 
time. 

Even  Dyeing. — The  goods  should  be  well  washed, 
rinsed,  and  wrung  out,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  they  are 
free  from  dirt  and  grease,  and  have  been  thoroughly 
and  evenly  wet.  They  are  then  placed  in  the  dye-bath, 
completely  under  the  liquid,  and  stirred  round  and 
round  and  turned  over  and  over  with  the  dye-sticks. 
The  chief  objects  in  stirring  are,  first,  to  prevent  part 
of  the  goods  from  resting  on  the  bottom  and  then 
getting  more  heat  than  the  rest  of  the  material,  in 
which  case,  naturally,  it  will  become  darker  when  fin- 
ished; and  second,  to  prevent  the  outside  portion  of 
the  goods  from  getting  more  color  than  the  inner 
portions.  Accordingly  the  goods,  when  placed  in  the 
dye-bath,  must  be  well  opened  up  and,  excepting  when 
deliberately  making  patterns  by  the  method  described 
later  under  the  name  of  "  Tied  and  Dyed  Work,"  they 
should  not  be  tied  or  entangled  in  knots  or  bunches. 
Every  part  must  be  equally  exposed,  by  the  turning 
and  lifting  and  stirring,  to  the  action  of  the  color 
solution. 

If  only  light  shades  are  desired,  the  goods  are 
heated  and  turned  until  the  proper  shade  has  been 
reached — remembering  always  that,  unless  the  color 


62  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

has  been  boiled  on,  it  is  likely  to  be  only  a  stain  which 
will  wash  off  easily. 

Salt. — For  full  and  indeed  for  medium  shades,  it  is 
customary  to  add  to  the  dye-bath  some  agent — usually 
table  salt  or,  when  the  shade  is  not  very  dark,  phos- 
phate of  soda — which  will  make  the  color  less  soluble 
in  the  dye-liquor  and  will  tend  to  throw  it  on  the 
fibre.  For,  after  all,  there  is  comparatively  little  af- 
finity between  the  cotton  fibre  and  the  dyestuff  (far 
less  than  between  silk  or  wool  and  the  Acid  or  Basic 
colors),  and  when  a  skein  is  warmed  or  even  boiled  in 
the  dye-bath  a  large  proportion  of  the  color  remains 
in  the  liquid.  The  bath  is  not  "  exhausted  "  as  the 
dyers  say.  Hence,  if  we  try  to  dye  full  shades  with 
these  colors  dissolved  in  water  only,  or  in  soap  and 
water,  it  can  only  be  done  by  using  large  quantities 
of  the  dyestuff,  most  of  which  will  be  wasted  in  the 
spent  dye-liquor. 

For  dark  shades,  then,  where  there  is  little  danger 
of  uneven  dyeing,  the  goods  are  usually  dyed  for  a 
short  time  with  the  color  dissolved  in  hot  water.  And 
then,  to  deepen  the  shade,  the  goods  are  lifted,  and 
common  salt  added  in  considerable  quantities,  three 
or  four  tablespoonfuls  to  the  gallon,  and  stirred  round 
till  it  is  dissolved.  Then  the  goods  are  put  back 
and  well  boiled  for  half  an  hour  or  so,  before  the  dye- 
ing is  considered  complete.  The  presence  of  salt,  by 
increasing  the  temperature  of  the  boiling  bath,  also 
helps  to  make  the  dyed  goods  fast  to  washing. 

Soap  cannot  be  used  in  the  presence  of  so  much  salt 
for  fear  of  its  depositing  on  the  fibre  in  spots  and 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  63 

so  causing  trouble.  For  medium  shades,  however, 
where  it  is  well  to  use  soap  in  the  dye-bath  so  as  to 
have  the  color  go  on  the  fibre  evenly,  a  little  phosphate 
of  soda  is  often  employed  instead  of  salt,  one  or  two 
tablespoon fuls  to  the  gallon,  to  diminish  the  waste  of 
color,  without  making  the  soap  insoluble. 

For  the  darker  shades  it  is  particularly  important 
to  thoroughly  boil  the  goods  for  half  an  hour  or  more, 
before  taking  them  out  of  the  dye-bath.  Otherwise 
the  dyestuff  will  not  penetrate  the  fibre,  but  will  simply 
stain  the  surface,  and  will  not  only  be  easily  washed 
off,  with  very  mild  soaping,  but,  when  dry,  will  be 
apt  to  crack  and  rub. 

Finishing. — After  the  materials  have  been  dyed  as 
just  described,  they  should  be  taken  out  of  the  dye- 
bath,  rinsed  with  water  to  wash  off  the  excess  of  dye- 
liquor,  and  then  shaken  out  and  dried. 

When  used  in  this  way  the  best  dyes  of  this  class, 
such  as  those  listed  a  little  further  on,  will  give,  on 
cotton  and  linen,  shades  that  are  very  fast  to  light, 
and  fairly  fast  to  washing.  On  wool  and  silk  the 
shades  are  fast  to  both  light  and  washing.  For  pur- 
poses of  comparison  it  may  be  stated  here  what  is 
generally  meant  by  these  terms. 
Fastness  to  Light. — The  test  for  light-fastness  is  usu- 
ally made  by  partially  covering  a  dyed  skein  with  a 
piece  of  wood,  or  heavy  piece  of  blotting-paper,  and 
exposing  it  to  direct  sunlight,  back  of  a  window  with 
southern  exposure.  At  intervals  the  skein  is  taken 
out  and  the  color  studied,  and  it  is  then  easy  to  see 
whether  any  change  has  taken  place  in  the  portion  of 


64  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  goods  exposed  to  the  light.  If  the  goods  have 
faded  appreciably  in  the  space  of  one  week,  the  dye- 
stuff  is  considered  not  fast. 

If  the  color  changes  after  two  weeks*  exposure, 
but  not  after  one  week,  it  is  to  be  considered  fairly 
fast. 

If  it  stands  for  two  weeks  but  fades  in  four  weeks 
it  is  to  be  called  fast. 

And  if  it  resists,  without  appreciable  change,  the 
action  of  the  summer  sunlight  for  full  four  weeks,  it 
is  called  very  fast. 

It  should  be  remembered,  in  this  connection,  that 
the  comparative  fastness  to  light  depends  largely  (a) 
upon  the  materials  to  be  dyed,  and  (b)  upon  the 
depth  and  shade  of  color  used  in  the  test.  For  in- 
stance, if  a  skein  of  heavy  cotton  yarn,  and  one  of 
very  fine,  brilliant,  artificial  silk  are  dyed  the  same 
color,  and  exposed  to  light  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, the  cotton  skein  will  hold  its  color  longer  than 
the  silk.  The  latter,  being  semi-transparent,  allows 
the  sunlight  to  pierce  it  through  and  through,  while 
the  more  opaque  cotton  gives  some  distinct  protection 
to  the  color  that  has  penetrated  beneath  the  surface. 
So,  too,  a  dark  shade  of  any  given  color  will  stand 
the  light  much  better  than  a  very  light  or  delicate 
shade,  for  the  same  general  reason.  The  color  be- 
neath the  surface  is  protected  from  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun's  rays  by  the  surface  color. 
Fastness  to  Washing. — The  test  for  washing- fastness 
is  made  somewhat  differently.  A  skein  dyed  a  full 
shade  with  the  color  is  twisted  up  with  two  white 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  65 

skeins,  one  of  wool  and  the  other  of  cotton,  and  the 
three  are  thoroughly  scoured  for  ten  minutes  in  a 
strong  bath  of  good  quality  laundry  soap,  heated  to 
I4O°F.  This  temperature  is  uncomfortably  hot  for 
the  hands  and  yet  is  well  below  the  boiling  point.  A 
fast  color  is  one  where,  with  this  treatment,  neither 
the  soap  liquor  nor  either  one  of  the  skeins  becomes 
colored. 

If  the  soap  liquor  is  colored  but  neither  one  of 
the  skeins,  the  dye  is  called  fairly  fast. 

If  the  soap  bath  is  tinged,  and  one  or  the  other  of 
the  skeins  becomes  colored  at  the  same  time,  the  dye 
is  considered  not  fast. 

It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  before 
making  this  washing-test,  all  excess  of  dye-liquor 
must  first  be  removed  by  thorough  rinsing.  And  it 
should  be  remembered  that  even  the  fastest  of  the 
Salt  colors,  as  well  as  of  the  Acid  and  Basic  colors 
described  later,  when  applied  directly  to  the  fibre, 
without  mordanting  or  after-treating,  are  never  as 
fast  to  washing  as  those  where  the  dyestuff  is  fixed 
or  developed  in  an  insoluble  form  in  the  fibre,  by 
the  action  of  the  air,  as  are  the  Sulphur  and  Vat 
colors — or  by  the  action  of  mordants,  as  with  the 
Alizarine  colors — or  by  after-treatment  with  certain 
special  chemicals,  as  with  the  Salt  colors  in  the  process 
described  below.  All  dyes  can,  sooner  or  later,  be 
dissociated  from  the  fibres  to  which  they  are  attached. 
But  if  they  are  in  an  insoluble  condition  they  drop 
off  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  and  are  washed  clean 
off,  and  leave  sharp,  clear  outlines  on  the  dyed  goods. 


66  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

If,  however,  they  have  gone  on  in  solution  they  will 
go  off  in  solution,  and  are  liable  to  bleed,  and  stain 
light-colored  fibres  near  them. 

The  earlier  dyestuffs  of  this  class  were  deservedly 
criticised  as  being,  even  when  carefully  applied,  much 
given  to  bleeding,  and  also  distinctly  fugitive  to  the 
action  of  sunlight. 

Of  late  years  the  quality  of  these  dyestuffs  has 
greatly  improved,  and  the  best  of  them,  like  those 
mentioned  below,  when  carefully  dyed  on  cotton,  are 
fast,  if  not  very  fast  to  light,  although  for  washing 
the  very  best  can  hardly  be  classed  even  as  fairly  fast, 
without  after-treatment. 

List  of  Selected  Dyestuffs.— 


Badische —  Oxamine  Fast  Red,  F 
Cotton,  Yellow,  G  I 
Stilbene  Yellow,  G  K 
Oxamine  Blue,  B 
Cotton  Black,  E,  extra 

Cassella—  Diamine  Fast  Red,  F 

Diamine  Fast  Yellow,  G  G 
Diamine  Fast  Blue,  F  F  G 
Diamine  Fast  Black,  F 

Elberfeld— Benzo  Fast  Red,  8  B  L 
Benzo  Fast  Yellow,  4  B 
Brilliant  Fast  Black,  4  B 
Pluto  Black,  F,  extra 

Kalle—       Naphthamine  Fast  Red,  H 

Naphthamine  Fast  Yellow,  2  G  L 
Naphthamine  Fast  Blue,  4  B  L 
Naphthamine  Fast  Violet,   R   L 
Naphthamine  Direct  Black 

Metz—        Dianil  Fast  Scarlet,  4  B  S 
Dianil  Orange,    G 
Dianil  Yellow,  O  O 
Dianil  Fast  Blue,   3   B 
Dianil  Fast  Black,  cone. 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  67 

As  above  mentioned,  even  the  very  best  dyes  belong- 
ing to  this  class  of  Salt  colors,  give  on  cotton  and 
linen  results  only  "  fairly  fast "  to  washing.  As  the 
modern  laundress  is  not  averse  to  using  stronger  agents 
than  good  laundry  soap  in  her  washtub,  and  not  infre- 
quently indulges  in  considerable  amounts  of  washing 
soda  (sodium  carbonate)  and  even  of  bleaching  pow- 
der, to  clean  quickly  a  dirty  piece  of  goods,  dyes  that 
are  "  fairly  fast "  according  to  the  regular  standard, 
will,  in  practice,  need  some  care  spent  on  them  if  they 
are  to  hold  their  color  for  long  periods.  Against  light 
the  best  ones  are  almost  as  fast  as  any  dyes  known, 
but  none  of  them  are  a  match  for  the  Sulphur  colors, 
or  especially  the  Vat  colors,  when  exposed  to  severe 
washing. 

After-treatment. — The  professional  dyer,  who  is  oc- 
casionally called  upon  to  produce  fast  colors  with 
these  dyes,  and  even  with  the  inferior  members  of 
this  class,  has  found  various  methods  of  after-treat- 
ment, by  which  the  colors  are  rendered  more  per- 
manent. 

A  favorite  process,  where  the  dyer  is  enough  of  a 
chemist  to  carry  it  out,  consists  of  making  an  entirely 
new  dyestuff  in  the  fibre,  generally  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent shade,  and  with  much  greater  power  of  resist- 
ance to  washing  and  to  light,  by  treating  the  dyed 
goods  first  with  a  mixture  of  sodium  nitrite  and  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and,  after  this,  passing  them  through 
a  solution  of  some  organic  chemical  such  as  carbolic 
acid,  alpha-  or  beta-naphthol,  or  others  known  as  de- 
velopers. 


68  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

This  process,  known  as  "  diazotizing  and  develop- 
ing," is  considerably  used  in  the  trade,  especially  for 
various  shades  of  black,  but  is  too  complicated  and 
delicate  for  craftsmen  in  general. 

A  simpler  process  is  to  warm  the  dyed  goods  for 
five  or  ten  minutes  in  a  weak  solution  of  the  orange- 
colored  salt,  bichromate  of  potash,  acidified  with  a 
little  acetic  acid — or  of  the  not  uncommon  chemical, 
sulphate  of  copper,  long  known  to  chemists  as  blue 
vitriol. 

When  the  best  dyes  are  used,  like  those  in  the 
preceding  list,  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  use  either 
of  these  reagents.  But  when,  as  sometimes  happens, 
one  is  obliged  to  use  dyes  of  this  general  class,  bought 
at  the  country  store  without  a  chance  of  knowing  how 
fast  they  are,  it  is  well  to  know  about  it.  For  a  piece 
of  goods  the  size  of  an  ordinary  linen  skirt,  the  after- 
treating  bath  would  be  made  as  follows:  In  two  and 
a  half  gallons  of  hot  water,  dissolve  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  sulphate  of  copper,  one  tablespoon ful  of 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
ordinary  acetic  acid  (equivalent,  say,  to  three  or 
four  teaspoonfuls  of  strong  vinegar).  The  goods, 
after  dyeing  and  rinsing,  but  before  drying,  should  be 
soaked  in  this  bath  and  heated  for  ten  minutes  until 
not  far  from  the  boiling  point.  They  should  then  be 
taken  out,  rinsed  carefully,  and  dried.  This  after- 
treatment  does  not  benefit  every  single  color  of  this 
class,  but  it  helps  greatly  the  fastness  to  light  and  to 
washing  of  almost  all  of  them.  The  chief  objection 
to  it,  besides  the  time  and  expense,  is  that  the  shade 


Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Colors  69 

of  the  finished  goods  is  often  considerably  changed 
by  the  process. 

Properties  and  Uses  of  the  Salt  Colors. — Generally 
speaking,  the  shades  produced  by  the  individual 
members  of  this  group  cover  all  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow  and  include  several  good  greys.  It  is  hard, 
however,  to  get  a  full  deep  black  on  cotton  or 
linen  with  these  dyes,  without  using  the  "  diazotizing 
and  developing "  process  of  after-treatment.  The 
dyes  go  on  the  fibre  in  a  soluble  form,  and  unless 
a  developing  process  like  this  is  used  they  combine 
directly  with  the  fibre,  and  do  not  form  a  coating  or 
layer  upon  it,  as  do  some  of  the  "  developed  "  dye- 
stuffs.  Accordingly,  no  matter  how  fully  or  how 
deeply  we  dye  a  piece  of  yarn  or  cloth  with  a  black 
dye  of  this  class,  the  finished  goods  will  show  grey, 
a  very  dark  grey,  to  be  sure,  but  still  grey,  and  not 
a  flat,  heavy,  true  black.  The  color  of  most  of  the 
salt  blacks  is  greatly  improved,  however — as  well  as 
their  fastness  to  light  and  washing — by  soaking  the 
dyed  goods,  after  rinsing,  in  a  solution  containing  four 
or  five  spoonfuls  of  formaldehyde  to  the  gallon. 

This  same  property,  however,  of  combining  directly 
with  the  fibre,  makes  the  colors  brighter  and  more 
brilliant  than  many  of  the  other  classes,  especially  in 
the  lighter  shades.  Accordingly  for  bright,  pretty 
shades  of  pinks,  blues,  yellows,  and  of  mixed  shades, 
fast  to  light,  but  not  very  fast  to  washing,  very  easily 
and  simply  applied,  these  colors  are  extremely  valua- 
ble. For  instance,  in  dyeing  large  quantities  of  bright 
colors  on  calico  or  cheesecloth,  for  some  special  occa- 


jo  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

sion,  as  a  pageant  or  spectacle,  these  are  the  colors 
to  use. 

Another  great  advantage  they  possess  is  that  they 
dye  true;  that  is,  they  do  not  alter  their  color  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  color  of  the  finished  goods 
can  be  fairly  estimated  from  the  color  of  the  dye-bath. 

Accordingly,  the  student  is  strongly  urged  to  prac- 
tise the  art  of  dyeing  with  these  colors.  They  are 
cheap  and  can  be  readily  obtained,  although  not  al- 
ways of  the  very  best  quality,  under  the  name  of 
Diamond  Dyes  for  cotton,  ezy  dyes,  etc.,  from  drug- 
gists and  grocerymen  all  over  the  country. 

They  can  be  easily  applied  to  cheesecloth,  muslin, 
and  other  inexpensive  materials,  and  if  care  is  taken 
to  soak  and  boil  the  goods  thoroughly,  to  linens  and 
heavy  cottons.  In  case  of  necessity  they  can  be  used 
on  wool  and  silk,  but,  as  a  rule,  their  use  is  limited 
to  vegetable  fibres.  They  are  particularly  valuable 
to  amateur  dyers  and  to  beginners  in  the  art,  because 
they  have  great  "  levelling  "  power ;  that  is,  it  is  easy 
to  dye  evenly  with  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  nuisance,  oftentimes,  to 
have  to  boil  the  goods,  and  even  then  the  colors  are 
not  really  fast  to  washing.  At  any  rate,  before  pro- 
ceeding to  the  study  of  the  more  permanent  but  more 
complicated  Sulphur  and  Vat  colors,  the  art  of  dyeing 
even  and  rainbow  shades  and  at  least  the  beginnings 
of  the  art  of  combining  and  matching  shades  should 
be  carefully  and  conscientiously  worked  out  with 
these  often  despised,  but  really  very  useful  and  val- 
uable, Salt  colors. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COLOR 
DYEING 

DIRECTLY  the  student  has  mastered  the  in- 
struction contained  in  the  three  previous  chap- 
ters, and  can  use  the  dyeing  apparatus  and 
the  unmixed  dyestuffs  so  as  to  get  reasonably  fast 
colors  on  cotton  and  linen  goods,  it  is  time  to  attack 
the  more  difficult  subject  of  dyeing  to  shade.  This 
art  is  not  an  easy  one,  by  any  means,  and  only  a  few 
fundamental  principles  can  be  learned  from  a  book. 
To  make  any  real  progress  in  it,  constant  and  con- 
tinuous practice  is  necessary;  even  then,  unless  the 
student  is  naturally  gifted  with  an  eye  capable  of 
readily  detecting  any  changes  of  color,  and  has  trained 
it  to  distinguish  and  identify  the  causes  of  such 
changes,  little  success  in  the  matching  of  colors  can 
be  hoped  for. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  unless  a  dyer 
can  match  shades  perfectly,  he  cannot  turn  out  very 
interesting  and,  indeed,  beautiful  results.  But  it  does 
mean  that  he  will  find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  reproduce  such  results,  and  will  be  frequently  han- 
dicapped in  trying  to  utilize  his  dyeing  skill  and  knowl- 
edge commercially. 

The  beginner  thinks — not  unnaturally  perhaps*— 

71 


72  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

that  in  order  to  get  any  considerable  variety  of 
shades  it  is  necessary  to  have  on  hand  a  large  and 
varied  assortment  of  dyestuffs;  and  it  is  conse- 
quently a  surprise  to  find  that  skilled  workers  keep 
in  stock  chiefly  a  good  supply  of  blue,  yellow,  and 
red  only.  Black  is  convenient  and  useful,  but  not 
essential,  excepting  for  special  purposes.  By  mixing 
these  three  "  primary "  colors  it  is  possible  to  get 
every  conceivable  shade  needed.  And  another  point, 
which  will  be  emphasized  below  and  which  is  also 
likely  to  be  a  surprise,  is  that  practically  every  pretty 
and  agreeable  shade,  no  matter  how  delicate,  is  com- 
posed of  all  three  of  these  primary  colors.  Blue  and 
yellow  produce  green,  blue  and  red  produce  violet, 
and  yellow  and  red  produce  orange,  while  the  addition 
of  the  third  or  "  complementary  "  color  to  any  of  these 
combinations  of  two  makes  grey,  when  all  three  colors 
are  perfectly  balanced,  and  when  one  color  or  another 
predominates,  it  is  greyed  and  softened  by  the  presence 
of  small  quantities  of  the  other  two. 

Experiments  with  Single   Colors 

The  way  to  study  color  dyeing  is,  first  of  all,  to  get 
a  clear  idea  of  the  effect  of  different  strengths  of  each 
of  these  three  primary  colors  in  producing  both  light 
and  dark  shades  of  a  single  color.  This  can  be  easily 
accomplished  with  the  red,  blue,  and  yellow  of  the  Salt 
dyes  described  in  the  last  chapter.  Dissolve  each  color 
separately  and  keep  them  in  separate  dye-pots  so  that 
you  can  readily  dye  pieces  of  cheesecloth  or  other 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     73 


DIAGRAM  OF  PRIMARY  COLORS 

Two  color  shades— Red  +  Blue  =  Violet 

Red  -f-  Yellow  =  Orange 
Yellow  +  Blue  =  Green 


Complementary  colors— Red  -j-  Blue  -f  Yellow  =  Grey 
Red  -f  Green  =        ) 
Blue  +  Orange  =     [•  Grey 
Yellow -f  Violet  =  ) 


cheap,  easy-dyeing  materials  any  light,  medium,  or 
dark  shade,  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  future  comparisons. 
Even  Dyeing. — First  wet  the  cloth  or  yarn  thoroughly 
by  soaking  in  hot  water,  then  rinse  well  and  wring 
it  dry — if  necessary,  using  a  wringer.  The  dyestuff 
should  already  be  carefully  dissolved  in  a  little  boiling 
water.  Pour  some  of  this  solution  (not  too  much, 
for  the  shades  should  all  be  pretty  light)  into  the  dye- 
pot  half  full  of  lukewarm  water.  Then  quickly  and 
wholly  immerse  the  wet  material,  stirring  and  work- 


74  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ing  about  with  the  dye-sticks,  and  let  the  whole  heat 
steadily  until  it  boils.  After  a  few  minutes'  boiling 
take  out  the  material  and  rinse  in  cold  water  until  it 
stops  bleeding.  When  this  is  carefully  done,  good, 
even,  and  smooth  shades  will  result. 
Shaded  Effects. — Of  more  real  interest,  although  an 
abomination  to  most  professional  dyers,  are  the  shaded 
effects.  Instead  of  trying  to  get  even,  smooth  colors, 
the  cloth  is  intentionally  dyed  unevenly  to  get  effects 
of  light  and  shade  in  the  color,  otherwise  impossible. 
This  does  not  mean  that  a  skein  or  piece  of  cloth  badly 
dyed  or  discolored  by  some  accident  or  carelessness 
should  be  proudly  exhibited  as  a  piece  of  really  ar- 
tistic dyeing,  as  is  done  occasionally,  by  some  workers, 
with  painful  results.  It  is  only  when  the  work  is  done 
carefully  and  thoughtfully  that  shaded  or  so-called 
"  rainbow  "  effects  may  be  obtained  upon  skeins,  basket 
materials,  and  cloth,  which  are  distinctly  interesting 
and  beautiful,  though  very  different  from  the  regular 
work  of  the  professional  dyers. 

Many  methods  of  obtaining  unique  results  in  this 
work  will  occur  to  the  student,  after  some  practical 
experience.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  begin  is  to  take 
a  piece  of  cheesecloth,  cut  in  the  form  of  a  scarf — 
say  two  yards  or  so  in  length — and  hemmed  on  both 
ends,  if  it  is  to  be  kept  for  exhibition  or  future  use. 
Before  it  is  wet,  tie  it  in  a  rather  tight  knot  in  the 
middle,  or,  if  the  scarf  is  long  enough,  two  knots  about 
six  or  eight  inches  from  each  end.  For  this  first  piece 
tie  a  very  simple  knot  by  merely  folding  the  scarf 
over  on  itself  and  pulling  the  goods  tight.  Then  wet 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     75 

the  cloth  thoroughly  and  dye  quickly  in  the  boiling 
dye-liquor;  rinse  off,  and  untie  the  knots.  The  open 
part  of  the  cloth  will  be  found  dyed  the  full  strength, 
and  where  there  were  knots  there  will  be  shaded  places 
varying  from  the  full  color  down  to  white. 

Another  method  is  to  take  the  wetted  scarf  in  the 
middle  and  gradually  lower  the  ends  into  the  hot 
dye-liquor,  stopping  just  before  the  middle  reaches  the 
dye.  If  carefully  done  this  will  give  regularly  shaded 
effects  running  from  white  or  very  light  at  the  centre, 
to  heavy,  full  shades  at  the  ends.  Of  course,  if  pre- 
ferred, the  ends  can  be  kept  out  of  the  Jye-liquor  and 
the  middle  portions  immersed.  This  will  give  a  scarf 
that  is  dark  in  the  centre  and  light  at  each  end — which 
is  not  so  good  a  color  arrangement,  ordinarily,  as  the 
light  centre  and  dark  ends. 

The  same  can  be  done  with  a  square  piece  of  cloth, 
well  wetted:  this  will  shade  in  an  interesting  manner, 
if  held  in  the  middle  and  dipped  slowly  and  gradually. 
Further  developments  of  this  work,  known  as  "  Tied 
and  Dyed  Work,"  are  described  in  a  following 
chapter. 

Experiments  with  the  Secondary  Colors 

After  the  above  methods  have  been  fairly  mastered, 
the  student  should  make  some  experiments  in  which 
two  of  the  primary  colors  are  mixed  together,  or 
better,  superimposed  one  on  the  other  to  show  the 
"  secondary  "  shades  produced  by  these  combinations. 
This  can  be  done  by  mixing  the  colors  two  by  two, 
until  three  baths  of  green,  violet,  and  orange  re- 


76  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

spectively  are  formed  as  before.  Then  try  dyeing  first 
for  even  colors  and  later  for  the  shaded  effects. 

The  most  interesting  experiments  in  this  line  are 
made  by  the  so-called  "  double  shading "  method. 
Here  the  same  baths  of  straight  primary  colors — red 
and  blue  and  yellow — should  be  used  as  in  the  earlier 
experiments;  but  the  goods  are  first  dyed  in  one  bath, 
and  then  after-dyed  or  "  topped  "  in  a  second  color. 

A  scarf  of  cheesecloth  is  good  for  a  first  attempt. 
This,  well  wet,  is  held  at  one  end  and  very  slowly 
lowered  into  the  hot  bath,  until  all  but  about  six  inches 
of  the  entire  length  is  immersed  in  the  dye.  This 
much  is  left  free  from  color.  Try  a  blue  dye  color 
for  this  series  of  shades,  fading  evenly  and  smoothly 
from  the  deepest  full  blue  at  one  end  to  a  pure  white 
at  the  other. 

After  rinsing  with  water  till  the  bleeding  is  over, 
reverse  the  scarf,  holding  it  by  the  opposite  end,  and 
lower  it  slowly  and  gradually  into  a  bath  of,  let  us 
say,  yellow,  keeping  about  six  inches  out  of  the  dye 
as  before.  This  will  produce  a  scarf  shaded  from 
clear  blue  at  one  end  to  clear  yellow  at  the  other  end 
and  showing  the  whole  range  of  green  shades  pro- 
duced by  mixing  these  two  colors,  along  its  length. 

Similar  tests  made  with  red  and  blue,  and  then  with 
red  and  yellow,  will  emphasize  to  the  student's  mind 
the  fact  that  green  is  formed  from  blue  and  yellow; 
violet  from  red  and  blue;  and  orange  from  red  and 
yellow;  and  that  each  combination  gives  an  infinite 
variety  of  intermediate  shades,  according  to  the  com- 
parative strength  of  the  individual  dyes. 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     77 
Matching  Colors 

The  next  step  is  to  dye  some  pieces  evenly  with 
green,  violet,  and  orange,  made  by  two  of  the  primary 
colors,  and  then  to  try  matching  these  with  fresh, 
newly-mixed  baths  of  the  same  dyes.  It  will  be  found 
here  that  success  depends  upon  going  slowly;  and 
upon  beginning  with  light  shades  and  building  the 
color  up  to  the  desired  strength  carefully,  by  means 
of  successive  dippings.  Note  that  the  color  of  cloth 
when  wet  is  much  darker  than  when  dry.  Some  dyers 
hold  the  wet  cloth  to  the  bright  sky  and  look  through 
it,  to  get  an  idea  of  what  the  finished  color  will  be 
like;  but  positively  certain  and  satisfactory  results 
are  arrived  at  only  by  wetting  the  sample  to  be  matched 
or  drying  the  piece  that  is  being  dyed,  so  that  both 
sample  and  piece  are  equally  wet  or  dry,  while  their 
color  is  being  compared. 

The  real  difficulty  of  color  dyeing  is  not  met  with 
until  the  student  tries  to  obtain  shades  embodying  all 
three  of  the  primary  colors.  A  very  few  experiments 
will  quickly  show  that  with  most  modern  dyestuffs 
it  is  hard  to  get  soft,  pleasant  tones  with  the  use  of 
only  two  colors.  Natural  colors,  as  we  find  them  in 
the  sky,  water,  meadow,  and  woodlands,  are  never 
pure;  they  are  invariably  mixed.  And  our  eyes  are 
so  accustomed  to  them  that  shades  dyed  with  simple 
or  pure  colors  look  hard,  cold,  and  inharmonious. 
Mixtures  of  two  colors  are  better  and  softer  than 
single  colors,  but  still  rather  hard.  But  when  the 
secondary  shade  resulting  from  the  combination  of 


78  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

two  primary  colors  is  mixed  with  even  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  third  primary  color,  the  result  is  invariably 
a  soft  and  pleasing  tone. 

The  above  statements  presuppose  that  it  is  possible, 
in  practice,  to  obtain  good  dyestuffs  in  each  class,  which 
are  absolutely  pure,  clean  shades  of  blue,  yellow,  and 
red  without  any  admixture  whatever.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  while  the  artificial  dyestuffs  are  much  more 
pure,  and  hence  much  more  hard  and  brilliant  than 
the  best  natural  colors,  they  still  in  many,  if  not  indeed, 
in  most  cases,  when  carefully  studied,  show  shades 
that  are  mixed  and  not  pure.  It  is  very  rare  to  find 
a  blue  that  does  not  incline  a  little  to  the  yellow  (a 
Blue  G  as  it  would  probably  be  labelled)  or  else  con- 
tain a  trace  of  violet  or  red  (Blue  R,  or  RR).  The 
reds  are  almost  invariably  either  scarlets,  containing 
a  trace  of  yellow,  or  crimsons  containing  blue.  And 
the  yellows,  also,  are  very  apt  to  tend  towards  orange 
or  occasionally  show  a  trace  of  green. 

This,  of  course,  complicates  the  problem  for  the 
practical  dyer  greatly,  and  means  that  instead  of  being 
able  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  shades  with  a  red, 
blue,  and  yellow,  it  is  frequently,  if  not  always,  neces- 
sary to  have  some  mixed  colors,  giving  sharp,  clear 
shades  of  violet,  green,  and  orange  respectively,  to 
obtain  certain  effects. 

The  following  diagram  will  perhaps  make  this  more 
clear.  In  this  the  three  primary  colors  have  been 
divided,  each  into  two  shades  as  indicated  by  the 
shade  letters,  R  meaning  red,  B  blue,  and  G  yellow 
(German  gelb)  shades  of  the  colors.  By  combining 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     79 

these  colors  as  shown  in  the  table,  clean,  clear  shades 
will  be  given,  whereas  other  combinations  would  be 
likely  to  spoil  the  shades. 


RED 


DIAGRAM  OF   MIXED  COLORS 


Red  B  +  Blue  R  =  Violet 

R  +  Red  G=Orange 
Red  B  -f  Orange  =  Red  G 

R  +  Green  ==  Yellow  G 
Red  G  +  Yellow  R  =  Orange    Blue  G  -f-  Violet  =  Blue  R 

low  B  -f  Orange  =  Yellow  R 
Red  G  +  Violet  =  Red  B    Blue  G  + Yellow  B  =  Green    Yellow 

B-f  Blue  G  =  Green 


Blue  R-f  Red  B  =  Violet    Yellow 
Blue  R  +  Green  =  Blue  G    Yellow 

Yel- 


Take,  for  example,  a  special  case,  namely  to  turn 
a  piece  of  crimson  calico  into  a  full  rich  scarlet.  The 
crimson  color  contains  a  great  deal  of  red,  mixed  with 
a  little  blue.  If  the  piece  were  after-dyed,  or 
"  topped,"  with  yellow,  even  in  small  quantities,  the 
result  would  probably  be  "  muddy,"  the  yellow  and 


8o  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

blue  together  being  in  such  strength  as  to  seriously 
diminish  the  strength  of  the  red,  and  make  it  more 
or  less  brown  in  shade. 

If,  however,  a  reddish  shade  of  orange  were  used 
for  shading,  instead  of  yellow,  the  red  of  the  mixture 
would  be  constantly  increased,  while  the  yellow  was 
"  killing "  the  blue,  i.e.,  turning  it,  with  a  little  red, 
into  grey;  and  before  long  the  crimson,  or  bluish 
shade  of  red,  would  turn  first  into  a  true  but  softened 
red,  with  neither  blue  nor  yellow  predominating,  and 
finally  into  a  scarlet,  with  distinct  traces  of  yellow. 

In  making  these  Three-color  Shades,  therefore, 
the  component  parts  of  each  dyestuff  used  must  be 
studied ;  and  in  every  case  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  third  color,  whatever  it  is,  added  in  such  minute 
quantities  as  only  to  soften  and  not  to  spoil  the  first 
shade.  A  teaspoon  ful,  sometimes  even  a  few  drops 
of  a  solution  of  one  strong  color,  will  generally  be 
enough  to  soften,  and  take  the  edge  off,  some  gallons 
of  dye  liquor  containing  a  hard,  clear  mixture  of 
the  other  two.  A  cupful,  on  the  other  hand,  or  even 
two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  might  utterly  spoil  the 
bath  and  turn  it  into  "  mud,"  as  a  dyer  would  say. 

It  is  worth  mentioning  here  that,  as  a  general  thing, 
it  is  distinctly  more  interesting  to  build  up  shades  by 
dipping  first  in  one  bath,  and  then  topping  with  the 
second  and  the  third  color  than  it  is  to  mix  the  dif- 
ferent colors  to  the  desired  shade  first  and  then  dye 
the  material  in  the  single  bath.  On  a  small  scale  there 
is  the  same  difference,  although  not  so  marked  and 
less  easily  noticed,  as  that  between  even  dyeing  and 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     81 

rainbow  dyeing.  There  is  often  a  loss  in  regularity 
and  evenness,  but  the  gain  in  life  and  light  when  one 
color  shines  through  another  which  covers  it  more 
than  compensates.  This  overlaying  is  not  so  per- 
ceptible in  the  even  dyeing  of  fine,  thin  materials, 
whether  yarn  or  cloth;  but  with  coarse,  heavy  yarns 
and  thick  textiles,  effects  can  be  obtained  by  after- 
dyeing  which  cannot  be  approached  when  the  goods 
are  dyed  in  one  bath. 

Matching  Shades. — Some  people,  I  believe,  go  so 
far  as  to  say  that,  in  order  to  be  really  expert  at  true 
shade  matching  when  using  the  three  colors  in  dyeing, 
a  dyer  must  have  begun  to  learn  the  art  in  the  person 
of  his  grandfather,  ninety  or  a  hundred  years  ago,  and 
kept  in  practise  ever  since. 

It  certainly  is  true  that  heredity  and  early  training 
both  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  skill  in  this  art,  and 
a  good  color  dyer  will  show  an  almost  uncanny  in- 
stinct, as  he  instantly  picks  out  differences  in  shade 
which  an  untrained  eye  would  never  notice,  and  with- 
out any  hesitation  prescribes  the  exact  remedy  for  the 
defect.  Still  there  are  plenty  of  good,  even  first-class 
dyers,  nowadays,  who  have  learned  their  art  quite 
late  in  life,  with  the  aid  of  a  good  eye  and  intelligent 
perseverance. 

The  chief  rule  to  remember  is  this:  Red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  when  mixed  in  equal  strength,  make  a  neutral 
grey  or  black.  Accordingly  any  one  color  will  form 
grey  or,  as  we  may  say,  will  neutralize,  or  be  com- 
plementary to  a  mixture  of  the  other  two.  Thus  red 
will  form  grey  with  green;  blue  with  orange,  and 


82  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

yellow  with  violet.  Accordingly  if  there  is  too  much 
red  in  the  dye-bath,  it  can  be  killed  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  green ;  and  vice  versa.  The  same  is  true 
with  the  other  complementary  colors.  If  this  simple 
rule  be  kept  clearly  in  mind,  most  of  the  problems  of 
matching  colors  and  of  getting  pleasant  and  harmoni- 
ous shades  can  be  worked  out  easily.  It  is  chiefly 
a  matter  of  practice,  and  perseverance. 

The  student  is  strongly  advised  to  attack  this  study 
in  three  ways: 

First,  mix  the  three  primary  colors  together  in  one 
bath,  to  form  definite  shades — grey,  brown,  olive 
green,  steel  blue,  etc.;  then  dye  the  cloth  in  the  bath 
to  see  how  the  colors  look  when  on  the  materials  and 
dried. 

Second,  to  dye  a  piece  of  cloth  one  mixed  shade 
and  by  topping  with  other  colors,  to  alter  that  shade 
to  match  some  shade  previously  selected.  For  in- 
stance, dye  a  piece  a  good  shade  of  reddish  or  copper 
brown,  and  then  try  to  "  kill "  the  red  in  it  without 
materially  deepening  the  shade,  i.e.,  change  it  from  a 
copper  brown  to  a  greyish  or  dirt  brown  of  about  the 
same  depth  of  color. 

Very  pretty  and  instructive  experiments  can  be 
made  along  this  line  of  building  up  soft  grey  shades, 
by  dyeing  the  cloth  successively  in  weak  baths  of 
the  three  primary  colors.  As  fast  as  one  color  pre- 
dominates, it  can  be  killed  by  dipping  into  successive 
baths  of  the  other  two. 

Attractive  scarfs  and  table  covers  can  be  made  with 
a  little  care,  by  knotting  the  material  and  dyeing  light 


Theory  and  Practice  of  Color  Dyeing     83 

rainbow  shades  of  the  three  colors,  one  after  the 
other,  changing  the  knots  or  tied  portions  after  each 
bath.  Properly  done,  this  will  produce  remarkably 
interesting,  opalescent  effects,  each  color  being  toned 
and  softened  by  the  other  two,  although  predominating 
in  different  parts  of  the  material. 

When,  in  the  operation  of  rainbow  dyeing,  strongly 
contrasting  colors  have  been  used  with  unhappy  re- 
sults (such  as  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue  tri-color  ef- 
fects that  some  students  will  produce)  try  the  effects 
of  toning,  or  "  covering,"  as  it  is  often  called,  with 
some  soft,  neutral  color  which  combines  in  itself  all 
the  contrasting  tones,  or  else  with  a  color  that  is  com- 
plementary to  the  most  obnoxious  one,  softening  that 
one  and  strengthening  the  weaker  shades.  Grey,  of 
course,  can  be  used  for  this;  but  in  general,  a  soft 
shade  of  brown  will  be  found  very  valuable  for  taking 
the  edge  off  of  too  violent  contrasts.  The  permanga- 
nate brown  (Manganese  bronze),  described  in  the 
first  chapter,  can  be  used  with  advantage  for  this 
purpose. 

It  is  not  difficult  for  a  skilful  dyer  to  match  any 
desired  shade  by  using  three  complementary  colors, 
red,  blue,  and  yellow,  provided,  of  course,  that  these 
are  pure  and  unmixed.  It  often  happens,  however, 
that  after  matching  carefully  a  soft  mixed  shade  by 
daylight,  the  colors  appear  entirely  different  when 
viewed  by  artificial  light,  and  especially  by  ordinary 
gaslight.  Daylight,  as  we  are  accustomed  to  it,  is 
comparatively  evenly  balanced  in  color,  is  in  fact  a 
white  light.  But  artificial  light  as  a  rule  is  distinctly 


84  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

colored,  and  it  is  difficult,  though  now  not  impossible, 
to  find  a  light  that  so  closely  resembles  daylight  that 
colors  can  be  matched  at  night. 

If  the  light,  for  instance,  has  a  bluish  tinge,  like 
some  kinds  of  electric  light,  it  will  kill  the  corre- 
sponding orange  in  a  shade,  while  yellow  light,  such 
as  commonly  results  from  the  use  of  oil,  candles,  or 
gas  (less  marked  when  incandescent  mantles  are 
used),  dulls  and  even  blackens  lavender,  violet,  and 
purple  shades,  while  having  little  or  no  effect  upon 
yellow,  orange,  and  green. 

It  is  therefore  advisable  when  matching  shades  that 
are  to  be  used  at  night  not  to  use  three-color  shades 
wherever  that  is  possible,  but  to  get  the  desired  soft 
effects  by  covering  directly  with  grey  (i.e.,  light 
shades  of  black)  on  top  of  a  single  or  two-color  shade. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  SULPHUR  COLORS 

NEARLY  thirty  years  ago  one  of  the  French 
color  houses  put  on  the  market  a  new  dye- 
stuff  which  it  named  "  Cachou  de  Laval " ; 
Cachou  being  the  same  as  catechu  or  "  cutch,"  the 
natural  brown  dyestuff  long  known  and  used  in  the 
East,  and  Laval  being  the  name  of  the  town  in  France 
where  one  of  its  discoverers  was  born. 

This  dyestuff  was  made  by  heating  sawdust,  bran, 
turf,  leaves,  or  other  vegetable  substances  with  the 
strongly  reducing  alkaline  salt,  sodium  sulphide,  in  the 
absence  of  air.  The  product,  dissolved  in  water, 
makes  a  dark  green  solution  which,  after  standing  in 
the  air  a  short  time,  turns  brown  and  deposits  a  fine 
brownish  powder.  Cotton  or  linen,  heated  in  a  fresh 
solution  of  this  dyestuff,  is  colored  green,  but,  when 
wrung  out  and  exposed  to  air,  the  green  color,  which 
easily  washes  out,  changes  into  a  very  permanent, 
though  dull  and  uninteresting,  shade  of  greyish  brown. 

This  Cachou  de  Laval  was  not  a  success,  commer- 
cially, because  of  its  poor  color.  It  existed,  however, 
as  a  chemical  curiosity  for  some  twelve  or  fourteen 
years;  then  suddenly,  within  a  few  months  or  even 
weeks  of  one  another,  all  the  great  color  houses  put 
out  a  whole  series  of  colors — chiefly  browns,  blues, 

85 


86  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

yellows,  and  blacks — all  formed,  like  this  old  "  Cachou 
de  Laval/'  by  the  action  of  sodium  sulphide  or,  which 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  of  sulphur  and  caustic 
alkali,  upon  organic  material,  and  all  capable  of  dye- 
ing cotton  and  linen,  in  one  bath,  colors  extremely 
fast  to  washing  and  generally  quite  fast  to  light,  after 
they  have  been  "  set  "  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

While  in  general  these  are  known  and  identified 
as  the  Sulphur  colors,  the  different  manufacturers 
have  given  special  class  names  to  their  own  series 
thus: 

Immedial  (Cassella),  Katigene  (Elberfeld),  Kyrogetxe 
(Badische).  Pyrogene  (Klipstein),  Thiogene  (Metz)> 
Thion  (Kalle). 

These  colors  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  dyeing 
cotton  and  linen,  when  shades  fast  to  washing  are 
required,  without  first  putting  them  through  a  mor- 
danting process.  The  dyeing  is  done  in  one  bath, 
with  little  more  difficulty  than  in  the  case  of  the  Salt 
colors  described  in  the  last  chapter;  and,  while  not 
faster  to  light  than  the  best  of  that  class,  they  are 
not  nearly  so  liable  to  bleed. 

On  wool  they  are  rarely,  if  ever,  used.  Wool  is 
almost  always  dyed  with  the  acid  colors  in  an  acid 
bath;  and  nowadays  the  range  of  these  colors  is  so 
great  and  the  best  of  them  are  so  very  satisfactory, 
that  there  is  hardly  ever  a  necessity  for  using  colors 
of  another  class. 

Neither  are  these  Sulphur  colors  often  used  on  silk, 
although  methods  have  been  devised  for  employing 
them  in  special  cases.  All  the  animal  fibres,  however, 


The  Sulphur  Colors  87 

and  silk  especially,  are  very  easily  "  tendered,"  and 
indeed  destroyed,  by  heating  in  an  alkaline  solution. 
And  so  it  is  very  easy  to  spoil  a  skein  or  piece  of 
silk  by  dyeing  it,  in  the  usual  manner,  with  these 
dyes,  dissolved  as  they  must  be  in  the  strongly  alkaline 
sodium  sulphide. 

The  presence  in  the  bath  of  glucose  (corn  syrup, 
molasses,  etc.),  or  of  glue  or  gelatine,  helps  greatly 
to  protect  these  fibres  from  the  action  of  the  chemicals. 
But  even  when  dyed  with  great  care,  using  glucose, 
and  dyeing  the  goods  for  but  a  short  time  in  a  bath 
strong  in  color  but  weak  in  alkali,  the  results  are 
not  very  satisfactory,  so  far  as  shade  and  lustre  are 
concerned.  They  have  the  advantage,  however,  of 
being  extremely  fast  to  washing,  more  so,  even,  than 
the  Salt  colors.  In  general,  however,  silk  should  be 
dyed  with  the  Acid  colors  for  ordinary  work,  and 
with  the  Salt  colors  when  fastness  to  washing  is 
required.  The  Sulphur  colors  should  be  reserved  for 
cotton  and  linen. 

On  mercerized  cotton  and  artificial  silk  these  dye- 
stuffs  take  easily  and  well,  when  dyed  in  cold  or  luke- 
warm baths.  The  lustre,  however,  of  the  finished 
goods  is  apt  to  be  less  than  when  Salt  colors  or  Basic 
colors  are  used. 

DYEING  DIRECTIONS 

For  cotton  and  linen,  measure  out  the  color  and 
dissolve  it  in  hot  water  to  which  has  been  added  twice 
its  amount  of  sodium  sulphide  (crystals)  and  a  quar- 


88  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ter  or  third  the  amount  of  soda  ash.  (In  all  these 
formulae  washing  soda  may  be  used  in  place  of  soda 
ash — only  in  quantities  almost  twice  as  large.)  It  is 
advisable,  though  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  add  also 
to  the  dye-bath  one  or  two  tablespoon fuls  of  Turkey 
red  oil — a  kind  of  liquid  soap  made  by  treating 
castor  oil  first  with  sulphuric  acid  and  then  with  soda. 
This  prevents  the  formation  of  a  dark  scum  on  the 
surface  of  the  dye  liquor,  which  is  likely  to  cause 
streaks  in  the  finished  goods,  hard  to  wash  out. 

Into  the  dye-liquor  immerse  the  well-wetted  goods, 
and  heat  them,  turning  them  constantly,  and  keeping 
them  as  far  as  possible  away  from  the  air  and  under 
the  level  of  the  liquid.  Just  before  the  boiling  point 
is  reached  take  out  the  goods,  and  add  salt  in  the 
proportion  of,  say,  two  spoonfuls  of  salt  for  every 
teaspoonful  of  dyestuff  used.  Stir  till  the  salt  is  all 
dissolved,  put  the  goods  back,  and  continue  to  turn 
them  as  before,  keeping  the  goods  down  under  the 
liquor  and  not  allowing  it  to  boil. 

After  dyeing  just  below  the  boiling  point  for  fifteen 
minutes,  remove  the  heat,  take  out  the  goods,  and — as 
quickly  as  possible — run  them  carefully  backward  and 
forward  through  the  wringer  (changing  the  folds  of 
the  goods  each  time)  until  the  excess  of  dye  liquor 
is  entirely  squeezed  out.  Then  shake  them  out,  hang 
them  up  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  the  air  to 
oxidize  and  "  set,"  and  after  this  wash  them  thor- 
oughly in  a  bath  of  boiling  soapsuds  until  all  the  loose 
color  has  been  removed.  Finally,  rinse  them  free 
from  soap,  and  hang  up  to  dry. 


The  Sulphur  Colors  89 

When  light  shades  are  desired,  or  when  the  goods 
are  tender,  the  dyeing  can  be  done  at  lukewarm  tem- 
perature, and  without  the  addition  of  salt,  with  no 
detriment  to  the  fastness  of  the  color.  In  this  case, 
however,  much  of  the  dyestuff  will  be  wasted  in  the 
unexhausted  dye-liquor. 

List  of  Selected  Dyestuff s. — 

Badische —  Kyrogene  Brown,  R  R  O 

Kyrogene  Yellow,  GG,  extra 
Kyrogene  Direct  Blue,  3  B,  extra 
Kyrogene  Black,  T  G  O 

Cassella—   Immedial  Bordeaux,  G 

Immedial  Yellow  Olive,  5  G 
Immedial  Direct  Blue,  B 

Elberfeld— Katigen  Yellow,  G  F,  extra 

Katigen  Indigo,  C  L  G,  extra 
Katigen  Deep  Black,  B 

Kalle— •        Thio  Indigo  Red,  B 

Thion  Yellow,  3  G,  extra 
Thion  Blue,  B,  cone. 
Thion  Black,  G,  cone. 

Metz —        Thiogene  Brown,  G  R 

Thiogene  Gold  Yellow,  A 

Thiogene  Green,  G 

Thiogene  Cyanine,  G 

Thiogene  Black,  M  A,  extra  strong 

These  Sulphur  colors  are  particularly  strong  in 
various  shades  of  black,  blue,  and  brown.  Some  of 
the  yellow  shades,  also,  are  very  fast  and  good.  The 
class  is  deficient,  however,  in  reds — the  only  one  so 
far  discovered  being  Thio  Indigo  Red  B  (Kalle), 
which  really  belongs  to  the  Indigo  or  Vat  colors, 
described  in  the  next  chapter,  and  which  does  not  give 
very  powerful  shades  when  used  as  a  Sulphur  color. 
As  a  rule,  these  dyes  produce  shades  that  are  softer, 


90  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

deeper,  and  much  less  brilliant  than  those  of  the  Direct 
Cotton  or  Salt  colors.  Being  usually  mixed,  and  not 
simple  primary,  colors,  they  are  not  very  easy  to  dye 
to  shade,  especially  as  the  color  of  the  freshly  dyed 
goods  changes  considerably  while  it  is  being  oxidized. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  give,  without  mixing,  ex- 
tremely pleasant  tones,  and  are  all  very  fast  to  wash- 
ing and,  at  any  rate  as  regards  the  selected  colors, 
are  fast  to  light. 

When  exposed  to  strong  direct  sunlight  some  even 
of  the  best  of  them  are  liable  to  change  their  shade 
somewhat ;  but  even  then  they  will  be  found  to  fade  to 
nice,  soft  shades  not  out  of  harmony  with  the  original. 
When  very  great  fastness  to  light  is  necessary,  it 
may  be  worth  while  to  after-treat  them  as  described 
in  Chapter  III,  by  keeping  the  dyed  goods  for  twenty 
or  thirty  minutes  in  a  hot  bath  (not  boiling)  contain- 
ing small  amounts  of  copper  sulphate,  bichromate  of 
potash,  and  acetic  acid. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  INDIGO  OR  VAT  COLORS 

HISTORY — Most  of  the  colors  of  this  group 
have  been  discovered  and  put  on  the  market 
within  the  last  two  years.     Thus  they  form 
the  most  recent  as  well  as,  in  many  respects,  the  most 
interesting  and,  perhaps,  the  most  important  class  of 
modern  dyestuffs.     On  the  other  hand,  to  this  same 
group  belong  not  only  indigo  itself,  which  has  been 
known  and  valued  in  the  East  from  the  earliest  ages, 
but  also  that  most  famous  of  all  the  ancient  dyestuffs, 
Tyrian  Purple. 

Indigo  itself  does  not  exist  as  such  in  nature;  but 
it  is  easily  formed  by  oxidation,  or  the  exposure  to 
air,  of  a  substance — Indican — which  occurs  as  such,  or 
can  be  produced  by  a  simple  process  of  fermentation, 
in  the  juices  of  many  widely  distributed  plants.  Ac- 
cordingly, even  quite  barbarous  races  in  different  parts 
of  the  world  noticed  the  deep  permanent  blue  stains 
formed  on  their  bodies  and  clothing  when  they 
crushed,  accidentally  or  on  purpose,  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  the  various  Indigoferce.  Gradually  they 
learned  to  extract  the  color  in  a  solid  and  permanent 
form  so  that  they  could  dye  with  it,  instead  of  using 
the  juice  of  the  fresh  plant  itself — and  then  they 
took  to  cultivating  the  plants. 

91 


92  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

These  plants — Indigofera  AnU,  I.  tinctoria,,  and 
others  originally  found  wild  have  been,  up  to  the 
last  four  or  five  years,  extensively  cultivated  in  many 
tropical  countries,  notably  in  India  (some  of  the  best 
qualities  came  from  the  province  of  Bengal,  and  hence 
the  common  name  for  the  natural  dyestuff — Bengal 
Indigo),  Japan,  China,  Java,  South  and  Central 
America,  and  Africa.  From  these  plants  the  indigo 
of  commerce,  in  the  form  of  dark  blue  granular 
lumps  with  a  characteristic  coppery  lustre,  was  pre- 
pared by  a  comparatively  simple  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, extraction,  and  oxidation. 

Indigo  may  also  be  obtained,  although  in  small 
quantities  only,  and  in  an  impure  condition,  from 
other  plants.  Notably  among  these  is  I  satis  tinctoria, 
or  woad,  which  in  early  days  was  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  England  and  the  Continent,  and  which, 
even  now,  is  used  in  small  quantities  in  some  pro- 
cesses of  indigo  dyeing. 

Artificial  Indigo. — The  exact  composition  of  indigo 
was  first  determined  some  sixty  years  ago,  and  from 
that  time  on  some  of  the  greatest  chemists  of  the 
world  have  been  attempting  to  prepare  it,  artificially, 
from  some  comparatively  inexpensive  source,  obtained 
from  coal  tar  or  elsewhere.  As  early  as  1875  tne 
problem  was  solved,  at  least  from  a  scientific  stand- 
point, but  the  process  proved  too  expensive  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  During  the  last  five  years,  how- 
ever, at  least  two  of  the  great  German  firms  have 
discovered  methods  for  making,  in  any  desired  quan- 
tities and  at  very  reasonable  expense,  absolutely  pure 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  93 

indigo  from  some  of  the  important  coal-tar  deriva- 
tives. And  since  that  time  the  cultivation  of  the  in- 
digo plant  has  proved  so  unprofitable  that  it  has  been 
almost  entirely  abandoned,  and  the  land  formerly  used 
for  this  crop  is  being  turned  over  to  other  and,  at 
present,  more  useful  purposes. 

This  synthesis — i.e.,  chemical  formation — of  indigo 
from  coal-tar  products  has  been  justly  regarded  as 
one  of  the  great  triumphs  of  modern  science.  Right 
here  let  me  impress  upon  my  readers  this  fact:  the 
real  dyestuff,  indigo,  is  absolutely  the  same  material, 
whether  it  comes  mixed  with  a  great  mass  of  im- 
purities, as  in  the  woad;  or  whether  it  contains  from 
5  to  25  per  cent,  of  foreign  matter  of  little  or  no 
value,  as  in  the  Bengal  or  natural  indigo;  or  whether 
we  get  it  from  Metz  or  the  Badische  Company,  chem- 
ically pure,  either  in  the  dry  state  or,  thinned  with 
water,  in  the  form  of  a  20  per  cent,  paste.  It  is 
positively  the  same  dye ;  and  being  absolutely  without 
contamination  of  any  kind,  the  artificial  or  synthetic 
dyestuff  presents  advantages  in  the  matter  of  purity 
of  shade,  ease  and  surety  of  manipulation,  and  per- 
manence of  the  color  produced,  which  could  never 
be  obtained  before  its  introduction. 
Application  of  Indigo — The  principles  of  indigo  dye- 
ing are  the  same  now  as  with  the  Egyptians,  the 
only  difference  being  in  the  means  used  to  bring 
about  the  chemical  changes  involved.  Indigo  itself 
is  a  blue  solid,  insoluble  in  water,  acids,  and  al- 
kalies, and  practically  unaffected  by  sunlight.  If, 
however,  the  element  hydrogen  be  added  to  it,  or, 


94  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

as  the  chemist  would  say,  if  it  is  "  reduced  "  by  the 
action  of  any  one  of  numerous  deoxidizing  or  re- 
ducing agents,  the  indigo  blue  is  changed  to  a  new 
substance,  indigo  white,  which  is  almost  colorless,  and 
which  dissolves,  in  the  presence  of  alkalies,  to  a  bright 
yellow  liquid.  If  cotton,  wool,  paper,  wood,  or  indeed 
almost  any  solid  materials  (noticeably  the  fingers  and 
nails,  as  some  of  my  readers  may  find  out),  are  im- 
mersed in  the  solution,  they  will  absorb  some  of  this 
indigo  white,  and  then,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  the 
white  indigo  will  rapidly  take  up  oxygen,  and  become 
converted  into  the  insoluble  blue  coloring  matter. 
Fermentation  Method. — Until  recently  the  methods 
used  for  reducing  the  indigo — i.e.,  changing  the  solid 
blue  into  the  soluble  white — were  just  about  the  same 
as  those  used  by  the  ancients,  and  were  based  upon 
some  kind  of  fermentation,  usually  alcoholic.  It  was 
found  out  at  a  very  early  date  that  if  indigo,  ground 
up  with  water  to  a  paste  and  rendered  alkaline  by  the 
addition  of  wood  ashes,  lime,  or  other  simple  alkali, 
were  mixed  with  grape  juice  or  any  other  sugary 
liquid,  and  then  kept  warm  and  allowed  to  ferment, 
the  resulting  fluid  would  contain  the  dyestuff  dis- 
solved in  a  form  suitable  for  dyeing.  The  vessel  in 
which  this  process  was  conducted  was  known  as  a 
vat,  and  the  process  of  indigo  dyeing  is  still  called 
"  Vat  Dyeing." 

'Disadvantages. — At  the  very  best  this  method  is  slow, 
uncertain,  and  difficult  to  manage,  especially  on  a  small 
scale.  In  wool  dyeing,  to  this  day,  a  few  vats  are  still 
to  be  found  where  syrup,  ground  madder  root  or,  in 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  95 

some  instances,  woad,  wheat  bran,  and  other  materials 
which  ferment  readily  in  the  presence  of  alkali,  are 
stirred  up  with  warm  water  and  soda,  and  then  al- 
lowed to  stand.  In  two  or  three  days  they  are  in 
active  fermentation,  and  the  indigo,  in  the  form  of 
paste,  is  added  and  well  stirred  in.  After  much  fur- 
ther delay,  if  all  goes  well,  the  indigo  is  finally  "  re- 
duced/' and,  if  the  amount  of  alkali,  the  temperature, 
the  concentration  of  the  vat,  and  various  other  factors 
are  carefully  attended  to,  the  bath  can  be  used  for 
several  days,  or  even  weeks,  without  being  made  over 
again ;  fresh  indigo  and  other  ingredients  being  added, 
from  time  to  time,  as  needed.  Cotton,  linen,  wool, 
and  even  silk  can  be  dipped  in  this  bath,  which  should 
be  light  greenish  yellow  in  color,  with  a  blue  or 
bluish-green  scum  or  coating,  where  the  indigo  is 
oxidized  on  the  surface.  Goods  immersed  in  this  bath 
turn  yellow,  and  then,  when  taken  out,  wrung  free 
from  loose  liquor,  and  exposed  to  the  air,  the  yellow 
color  quickly  changes  to  a  permanent  blue. 

A  serious  drawback  to  all  these  various  fermenta- 
tion vats  is  that  a  good  deal  of  the  dyestuff  is  always 
spoilt — i.e.,  decomposed  into  colorless  compounds 
which  can  never  be  regenerated  or  made  useful.  In- 
deed, the  loss  from  this  cause  frequently  amounts  to 
20$  or  25$  of  all  the  dye  used,  and  occasionally,  espe- 
cially in  hot  weather,  and  on  a  small  scale,  to  far 
more. 

But,  apart  from  the  actual  loss  in  valuable  dye- 
stuff,  there  is  a  much  more  serious  drawback  to  this 
method  of  indigo-dyeing,  namely,  the  waste  of  time 


96  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

and  energy  involved.  There  is  always  a  considerable 
delay  in  getting  a  fermentation  vat  fairly  started, 
even  where  all  the  conditions  are  favorable ;  and  when 
it  is  running  smoothly,  the  reducing  process  is  a  very 
slow  one.  Furthermore,  the  indigo,  not  being  dis- 
solved in  the  liquid  but  only  suspended  in  it,  has  a 
constant  tendency  to  sink  to  the  bottom  in  the  form 
of  a  blue  mud,  and  thus  escape  the  chemical  action  of 
the  fermentation  gases  entirely. 

A  short  time  ago  a  teacher  of  handicraft  dyeing 
was  expatiating,  in  my  presence,  upon  the  impropriety 
of  using  any  of  the  new  chemical  processes  for  dye- 
ing, and  insisted  that  the  only  way  to  dye  indigo  was 
to  set  up  a  vat,  and  feed  it,  and  work  with  it  as  our 
ancestors  used  to.  It  was  suggested  to  her  that  it 
would  be  at  least  two  or  three  days  before  cloth 
could  be  dyed  in  such  a  vat.  "  Eight  or  ten  days 
at  the  earliest,"  was  the  reply.  And  when  it  was 
hinted  that  the  vat  would  have  to  be  frequently  stirred 
during  all  that  time,  she  proudly  answered,  "  Stirred 
regularly  and  thoroughly  every  single  half -hour,  night 
and  day,  during  the  whole  period." 

"H— m,"  remarked  a  bystander,  "that's  a  little 
worse  than  sitting  up  with  a  baby  sick  of  the  croup." 

Somehow  the  great  advantage  of  this  particular 
process  over  the  modern  ones,  by  which  a  proper  bath 
can  be  prepared  in  perhaps  five  minutes,  failed  to  im- 
press itself  on  some  of  her  listeners. 
Modern  Chemical  Fats. — As  soon  as  it  was  under- 
stood just  what  chemical  action  was  going  on  in  the 
vats,  and  the  object  of  it,  chemists  began  to  find  out 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  97 

methods  for  reducing  the  indigo  without  the  necessity 
of  a  long,  tedious,  and  even  nasty  fermentation  process. 
They  first  introduced  the  "  copperas-lime  "  vat,  where 
the  reduction  was  done  by  the  use  of  ferrous  sulphate 
(green  vitriol  or  copperas),  and  slaked  lime  was  the 
alkali  used  to  keep  the  indigo  white  dissolved. 

Later  they  introduced  zinc  dust,  a  very  powerful 
reducing  agent,  in  place  of  the  copperas,  avoiding  in 
this  way  the  large  amount  of  precipitated  iron  oxide 
which  always  forms  in  the  copperas  vat,  and  leads 
to  the  loss  of  dye,  and  muddiness  and  dulness  of 
color,  necessitating  a  special  clearing  bath  of  dilute 
mineral  acid. 

At  present  the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  use 
the  chemical  known  as  sodium  hydro  sulphite,  as  a 
reducing  agent,  in  a  bath  made  strongly  alkaline  with 
caustic  soda.  Hydrosulphite  is  not  expensive;  it  acts 
very  rapidly,  leaving  no  sediment ;  it  causes  no  loss  or 
waste  of  the  indigo;  and  it  does  its  work  perfectly. 
Hence,  with  its  introduction,  the  dyeing  of  indigo 
has  become  extremely  simple. 

To  still  further  shorten  and  simplify  the  process, 
the  large  manufacturers  not  only  furnish  indigo  al- 
ready ground  up  to  a  fine  paste  with  water,  but  also 
supply  it  already  reduced  by  hydrosulphite  or  some 
other  reducing  agent,  so  that  it  is  almost  ready  to  dye 
with  as  it  is,  and  will  dissolve  almost  instantaneously 
in  an  alkaline  bath  with  the  addition  of  just  a  little 
more  reducing  agent.  Such  products  are  the  Indigo 
Vat  III  (Metz),  and  the  Indigo  Solution  20^  (Ba- 
dische).  >By  using  either  of  these,  the  preparation  of 


98  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

a  vat  large  enough  to  dye  3  or  3^  pounds  of  cotton 
is  the  task  of  but  a  few  moments.  These  special 
preparations,  however,  are  more  expensive  than  the 
regular  20$  pastes,  and  the  hydrosulphite  vat  is  so 
easy  to  prepare  that  the  saving  of  time  is  hardly 
worth  the  extra  cost. 

DYEING  DIRECTIONS 

For  dyeing  by  the  Vat  method  the  dye-pot  is  two- 
thirds  rilled  with  warm  water,  at  about  120°  F.  (when 
the  ringer  can  hardly  bear  the  heat),  and  one  or  two 
tablespoon fuls  of  caustic  soda  are  added — enough  to 
make  the  bath  decidedly  alkaline.  The  dyestuff,  pref- 
erably first  mixed  up  with  some  hot  water,  to  thin 
the  paste,  is  stirred  into  the  liquid,  and  then  to  this  is 
added  sodium  hydrosulphite,  in  powder,  or  preferably 
dissolved  in  water,  until  the  color  of  the  bath  changes 
from  blue,  first  to  green,  and  then  to  greenish  yellow, 
with  a  bluish-green  coppery  scum.  If  the  bath  is 
bright  yellow,  too  much  hydrosulphite  has  been  used, 
and  some  more  indigo  should  be  added;  or,  if  this  is 
not  desirable  for  fear  of  getting  too  dark  shades,  the 
bath  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  and  stirred  fre- 
quently until  the  color  is  right.  If  the  bath,  on  scrap- 
ing aside  the  scum,  looks  blue,  or  even  markedly  green, 
it  needs  a  little  more  hydrosulphite.  If,  after  reduc- 
tion, the  bath  looks  yellow  but  turbid,  it  probably 
needs  more  alkali. 

Into  this  bath  the  material  is  placed,  and  stirred 
around  until  thoroughly  saturated — the  temperature 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  99 

being  kept  about  120°  F.  for  heavy  goods,  to  assist 
penetration.  Light  goods  can  be  dyed  equally  well  in 
a  lukewarm,  or  even  a  cold  bath.  The  goods  are  then 
taken  out,  wrung  lightly  by  hand,  and  are  carefully 
passed  two  or  three  times  through  the  wringer,  to  get 
the  color  evenly  distributed.  They  are  then  shaken 
out  and  hung  up  in  the  air  to  oxidize.  In  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  after  the  color  has  changed,  they 
should  be  rinsed  well  in  two  or  three  waters,  to  get 
rid  of  all  traces  of  the  caustic  alkali,  and  then  boiled 
for  several  minutes  in  a  soap  bath,  to  wash  off  the 
loose  dyestuff  and  prevent  rubbing.  This  after-treat- 
ment with  boiling  soapsuds  is  of  even  more  importance 
in  the  case  of  the  other  Vat  dyes  than  it  is  with  indigo, 
for  with  most  of  them  the  oxidation  is  not  completed 
in  the  air — and  so  the  color  is  developed  as  well  as 
brightened  by  the  soap  bath. 

It  is  very  important,  when  working  with  these  Vat 
colors,  to  remember  that  hot  solutions  of  caustic  alkali 
are  very  hard  on  the  hands  and  that,  therefore,  rubber 
gloves  are  extremely  useful,  if  not  essential.  Stains 
left  on  hands,  clothes,  and  utensils,  although  difficult 
to  remove  by  washing,  are  almost  instantly  dissolved 
by  warm  solutions  of  hydrosulphite  with  a  little  soda 
or  other  alkali  in  them. 

Results. — Colors  produced  by  synthetic  indigo  are  clear 
and  clean,  but  not  brilliant.  If  the  slightly  purplish 
shades  of  natural  indigo  are  desired,  they  can  be  ob- 
tained with  special  brands — Indigo  R,  or  Indigo  RR, 
Metz — or  by  mixing  small  quantities  of  Algol  Red  B, 
Elberfeld,  or  Thio  Indigo  Red  B,  Kalle,  with  the  in- 


ioo  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

digo  before  reducing  it.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
the  characteristic  shade,  the  so-called  "  bloom "  of 
natural  indigo,  was  due  to  the  presence  of  small  quan- 
tities of  a  reddish  dyestuff,  known  as  indigo  red.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  method  of  dyeing  has 
more  to  do  with  this  than  the  composition  of  the 
dyestuff. 

For  instance,  if  the  indigo  is  very  thoroughly  re- 
duced in  the  vat  before  the  goods  are  immersed,  as  is 
generally  the  case  in  the  modern  hydrosulphite 
method,  and  the  bath  is  made  up  with  fresh  reducing 
agent  for  each  dyeing,  the  resultant  color  will  be  a 
very  clear,  rather  greyish,  shade  of  blue  without  any 
purple  lustre.  If,  however,  the  dyestuff  is  not  very 
perfectly  reduced,  as  was  generally  the  case  with  the 
old  fermentation  vats,  and  the  bath,  from  standing 
in  the  air,  has  a  heavy  scum  on  the  top,  and  is  green- 
ish rather  than  clear  yellow  in  color  below  the  sur- 
face, then  the  dyed  fabrics  will  be  apt  to  show  the 
marked  purplish  tone  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the 
older  indigo  dyeings. 

Uses. — While  of  less  importance  than  it  used  to  be 
before  the  discoveries  of  the  last  few  years,  the  use 
of  indigo  for  dyeing  cotton,  especially  for  the  crafts- 
man, is  not  to  be  neglected.  It  furnishes,  easily  and 
rapidly,  in  one  bath,  without  either  boiling,  mordant- 
ing, or  after-treatment,  exceedingly  pleasant,  soft 
shades  which  are  fast  to  both  light  and  washing.  For 
resist  dyeing,  such  as  Tied  and  Dyed  work,  Resist 
Stencil  work,  and  Batik,  it  will  be  found  particularly 
useful,  because  the  fabric  can  be  dyed  in  the  cold. 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  101 

Indigo  possesses,  however,  certain  disadvantages, 
especially  for  the  professional  dyer,  which  it  shares 
with  the  other  Vat  dyes  described  below,  and  which 
prevent  it,  and  the  other  Vat  dyes,  from  being  used 
as  widely  as  the  Salt  colors  or  even  the  Sulphur  colors. 
In  the  first  place  these  dyes  are  all  of  them  expensive. 
They  cost  more  than  most  others,  pound  for  pound  of 
the  dry  color,  and  full  shades  need  much  larger  pro- 
portions of  them  in  the  bath. 

Then  it  is  difficult  to  dye  to  shade  with  them,  be- 
cause the  color,  as  a  rule,  alters  so  much  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  In  practice,  when  dyeing  large  quantities 
of  goods  to  the  same  shade,  it  is  customary  to  divide 
the  materials  into  several  lots  of  the  same  weight ;  and 
to  make  a  strong  "  stock  solution  "  of  the  dyestuff, 
properly  reduced  with  alkali  and  hydrosulphite.  By 
making  up  a  fresh  vat  for  each  lot  of  goods,  using 
exactly  the  same  volume  of  water  and  of  "  stock 
solution,"  and  working  each  lot  for  the  same  length  of 
time  and  at  the  same  temperature,  even  results  can  be 
produced  with  much  less  trouble  than  by  dyeing  to 
shade  by  the  eye. 

Another  drawback  is  that  indigo-dyed  goods,  espe- 
cially of  the  heavy  full  shades,  are  apt  to  "  rub." 
This  can  best  be  avoided  by  always  using  a  well- 
reduced  bath ;  by  washing  with  boiling  soap  after  each 
dip;  and  by  building  up  the  deep  shades  by  successive 
dippings  in  moderately  weak  vats,  rather  than  by  ob- 
taining the  shade,  once  for  all,  by  using  a  very  strong, 
concentrated  dye-liquor. 

For  many  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of  years, 


102  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

indigo  has  been  universally  recognized  as  the  most  per- 
manent and  most  valuable  blue  dyestuff  for  cotton 
and  indeed  for  woolen  goods.  For  the  latter  purpose 
it  is  now  but  little  used,  thanks  to  the  introduction 
of  the  exceedingly  fast  dyestuffs  of  the  Acid  and  Mor- 
dant classes.  But  for  cotton  it  is  still  considerably 
used,  for  fast  shades. 

THE  MODERN   VAT   COLORS 

Up  to  a  very  recent  date  indigo  was  the  only  dye- 
stuff,  of  any  importance  at  any  rate,  that  was  used 
in  the  manner  just  described,  and  produced  colors 
fast  to  light  and  to  washing.  During  the  past  three 
or  four  years,  however,  the  attention  of  the  dyeing 
chemists  has  been  directed  to  this  question,  and  at 
least  five  of  the  great  dye  houses  have  introduced 
dyestuffs  covering  a  great  range  of  colors  which,  when 
dyed  in  the  same  way  as  indigo,  not  only  rival  but 
distinctly  surpass  that  color  in  permanence  as  well  as 
beauty. 

Names — These  dyestuffs,  while  known  generally  as 
the  Vat  colors,  have  been  given  special  class  names  by 
their  manufacturers,  as  follows:  Algol  (Elberfeld)  ; 
Ciba  (Klipstein) ;  Helindone  (Metz) ;  Indanthrene 
(Badische),  and  Thio  Indigo  (Kalle).  The  Cassella 
Company  are  just  introducing  the  first  members  of 
their  series,  to  be  known  as  Hydrons. 

List  of  Selected  Dyestuffs: — 

Badische —  Indanthrene  Claret,  B,  Extra 
Indanthrene  Yellow,  G 
Indanthrene  Blue,  G  C  D 
*Indigo  pure 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  103 

Cassella—  *Hydrone  Blue,  R 
*Hydrone  Blue,  G 

Elberfeld—  Algol  Red,  5  G 

Algol  Yellow,  3  G 
Algol  Blue,  3  G 

Kalle-       •Thio  Indigo  Red,  B  G 
•Thio  Indigo  Scarlet,  S 
Thio  Indigo  Brown,  G 
•Indigo,  K  G 

Klipstein—  Ciba  Red,  G 

Cibanone  Yellow,  R 
Ciba  Green,  G 
Ciba  Blue,  2  B 
Ciba  Violet,  R 

Metz—          Helindone  Red,  3  B 

Helindone  Fast  Scarlet,  R 
•Helindone  Yellow,  3  G  N 
•Indigo  M  L  B,  6  B 


Properties  and  Uses — These  Vat  dyes  are  not  all 
of  equal  value,  but  as  a  class  they  are,  distinctly, 
the  fastest  of  any  as  yet  introduced;  and  the  best 
of  them  may  properly  be  considered  as  the  most 
permanent  coloring  agents  of  any  sort  or  kind  that 
have  ever  yet  appeared  on  the  earth.  They  not  only 
far  surpass  in  this  respect  the  best  of  the  vegetable 
dyestuffs,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  very  best 
qualities  of  Turkey  red,  but  in  resistance  to  chem- 
icals and  outside  agencies  of  various  sorts,  are  much 
better  than  the  best  mineral  colors.  This  is  so  much 
the  case  that  the  modern  specifications  for  dyed  cloth 
for  Government  purposes,  as  for  instance  the  khaki 
uniforms  for  soldiers  in  active  service,  which  up  to 
a  year  or  two  ago  were  dyed  with  iron  buff  modified 

*N.B.— The  dyestuffs  marked  *  will  dye  in  a  lukewarm  or  even  cold  bath. 


IO4  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

with  oxide  of  chromium,  have  been  raised,  in  one 
country  after  another,  until  they  exclude  every  class 
of  dyestuffs  except  these  new  Vat  colors. 

During  the  last  year  or  two  these  dyes  have  been 
introduced,  though  with  some  difficulty,  into  com- 
merce, and  it  is  possible  to  obtain  shirtings  and  other 
printed  goods,  dyed  in  permanent  colors,  so  permanent 
indeed  that  the  cloth  will  wear  completely  out  before 
the  color  changes  in  the  slightest.  The  extra  cost  of 
the  dyestuffs,  and  the  comparative  difficulty  of  dyeing 
to  shade,  furnish  an  excuse  for  increasing  the  price 
of  the  goods.  And  the  perhaps  not  unnatural  disin- 
clination of  the  shopkeepers  to  push  the  sale  of  ma- 
terials which,  in  their  opinion,  are  quite  unnecessarily 
fast,  has  combined  with  the  cost  to  delay  the  general 
adoption  of  these  remarkably  valuable  coloring 
agents. 

For  craftsmen,  however,  where  the  price  of  the 
dyestuffs  constitutes  such  a  small  percentage  of  the 
cost  of  the  finished  article,  and  where  the  absolute  per- 
manence of  the  color  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  these 
colors  are  most  useful.  They  are  not  to  be  used, 
excepting  under  special  circumstances,  for  animal 
fibres — wool,  silk,  leather,  feathers,  etc. — for  fear  of 
injuring  the  materials  by  the  action  of  the  caustic 
alkali.  But  on  cotton  and  linen,  both  in  direct  or 
resist  dyeing,  and  for  stencil  work,  there  are  no  colors 
to  compare  with  them  in  fastness,  not  excepting  even 
the  very  best  of  the  Sulphur  colors. 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  105 

DYEING    DIRECTIONS 

These  dyes  are  all  applied,  just  like  indigo,  in  an 
alkaline  hydrosulphite  vat.  The  colors  are  applied 
in  paste  form,  usually  20$  strong,  or  at  any  rate 
equivalent  in  strength  to  a  20$  paste  of  pure  indigo. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  thoroughly  mix  and  stir  up  this 
paste  with  a  glass  rod,  in  the  original  package,  each 
time  it  is  used,  so  as  to  keep  its  composition  uniform. 

The  proper  amount,  to  be  determined  only  by  ex- 
perience, is  first  thinned  with  a  little  hot  water,  and 
then  stirred  into  the  dye-pot,  two-thirds  full  of  hot 
water,  about  140°  F.  (This  is  well  below  a  boil,  and 
yet  hot  enough  to  slightly  scald  the  tips  of  the  fin- 
gers.) To  this  is  added  caustic  soda,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  to  three  spoonfuls  to  each  one  of  the 
color,  the  amount  of  soda  being  proportionately 
greater  for  light  shades  than  where  large  amounts 
of  color  are  used. 

After  this  has  been  dissolved  the  dyestuff  is  re- 
duced by  adding  slowly,  with  constant  stirring,  spoon- 
ful after  spoonful  of  the  powdered  sodium  hydro- 
sulphite  until  the  bath  clears  and  generally  the  color 
changes.  In  most  cases,  as  with  indigo,  the  comple- 
tion of  the  reducing  change  can  be  told  by  a  marked 
alteration  in  the  shade  of  the  bath. 

Thus,  in  general,  the  blue  dyes,  like  indigo,  turn 
yellow  or  orange  when  the  proper  amount  of  hydro- 
sulphite  is  added.  For  the  other  colors  there  is  no 
general  rule.  Thus  Indanthrene  Yellow  (Badische), 
when  reduced,  is  blue — while  the  Helindone  Yellow 


io6  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

(Metz)  is  blood  red.  Helindone  Scarlets  (Metz), 
when  reduced,  appear  green,  while  the  Thio  Indigo 
Red  and  Scarlet  have  about  the  same  color,  when  re- 
duced, that  they  have  when  oxidized. 

The  best  way  to  tell  whether  the  bath  is  in  proper 
condition  is  to  dip  a  piece  of  white  blotting  paper  into 
it,  and  notice,  on  taking  it  out,  whether  the  color  is  in 
specks  or  is  dissolved.  On  standing  in  the  air  for  a 
few  minutes  the  color  should  become  oxidized,  and 
firmly  fixed  to  the  paper.  As  a  rule  these  Vat  colors 
should  be  reduced  warm,  because,  in  many  cases  at 
least,  the  reduced  color  does  not  dissolve  in  a  bath  of 
cold  alkali.  In  most  cases,  however,  after  having 
been  reduced  at  a  temperature  of  about  140°  F,  the 
bath  may  be  allowed  to  cool  considerably,  before  it 
loses  its  dyeing  value.  This  enables  these  colors  to 
be  used  for  Batik,  or  other  processes  where  the  tem- 
perature must  be  kept  below  80°  or  90°  F.  The  dye- 
stuffs  which  can  be  thus  used  will  be  found  marked 
with  an  asterisk  in  the  list  of  selected  dyestuffs  above. 

The  well-wetted  materials  are  placed  in  the  reduced 
dye-bath,  and  stirred  and  worked  for  five  or  ten 
minutes,  or  longer,  according  to  the  depth  of  shade 
experienced.  For  full  shades,  however,  as  in  the 
case  of  indigo,  it  is  much  better  to  build  up  the  color 
by  successive  dippings  than  to  try  to  put  it  all  on  in 
one  bath.  For  heavy  goods  the  addition  of  a  little 
Turkey  red  oil,  about  half  a  tablespoonful  to  the 
gallon,  is  an  advantage,  though  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary. When  thoroughly  impregnated  with  the  dye- 
liquor,  the  goods  are  taken  out,  wrung  carefully,  two 


The  Indigo  or  Vat  Colors  107 

or  three  times,  to  remove  the  waste  liquor  as  evenly 
as  possible,  and  then  shaken  out  and  exposed  to  the 
air  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  They  are  then 
boiled  in  a  soap  bath  for  about  twenty  minutes,  and 
then  well  rinsed,  and  dried.  This  hot  soap  bath,  as 
before  mentioned,  is  of  great  importance  in  most  of 
these  colors,  not  only  for  getting  rid  of  loosely  fixed 
dyestuff,  but  for  oxidizing  and  fixing  the  color  itself. 

For  dark  shades  it  is  well,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Sulphur  colors,  to  add  salt — three  or  four  tablespoon- 
fuls  per  gallon  of  dye-liquor — to  the  bath,  taking  care 
to  have  it  well  dissolved  before  the  goods  are  entered. 
This  is  always  done  when  dyeing  with  Helindone  Yel- 
low 3GN,  Metz. 

The  shades  of  these  new  Vat  colors  are  extremely 
bright  and  clear,  and,  by  combining  these  properly, 
any  desired  effects  may  be  produced.  The  splendid 
series  of  reds  and  scarlets  for  the  first  time  allow  the 
characteristic  shades  of  Turkey  red  to  be  obtained,  in 
one  bath,  and  of  at  least  equal,  if  not  of  superior 
fastness  to  the  original.  One  peculiarity  of  these 
colors  is  their  extreme  fastness,  not  only  to  light  and 
washing,  acids  and  alkalies,  but  also  to  various  ox- 
idizing agents,  such  as  chloride  of  lime  or  bleaching 
powder.  Accordingly  goods  properly  dyed  and  fin- 
ished with  these  dyestuffs  can  be  entrusted  with  safety, 
so  far  as  the  color  goes,  to  agencies  which  would 
speedily  ruin  fabrics  dyed  in  any  other  manner. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  BASIC  COLORS 

IN  an  earlier  chapter  it  was  mentioned  that  the 
modern  dyestuffs  originated  with  the  discovery 
by  Perkin,  in  1856,  of  the  violet  coloring  matter 
known  as  Mauveine.  This  dye  was  made  by  the  oxi- 
dation of  the  then  rare  chemical,  aniline.  Following 
this  discovery,  other  chemists,  especially  in  France 
and  Germany,  soon  obtained  from  the  same  chemical 
or  from  substances  very  closely  resembling  it,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  powerful  and  brilliant  dyestuffs 
of  the  same  general  character. 

The  original  Mauveine  was  before  long  superseded, 
first  by  Hofmann's  Violet,  and  then  by  a  very  im- 
portant series  of  violet  and  purple  dyes  known  as 
Methyl  Violet,  with  shades  ranging  from  6  or  76 
for  the  deep,  full  purples,  to  the  6  or  7R  for  the 
very  red  shades.  These  violet  colors  have  never  been 
surpassed,  or  even  equalled  by  any  other  dyes  for 
brilliancy  and  richness,  although,  in  common  with 
almost  all  the  other  dyes  of  this  class,  they  are  not 
fast  to  sunlight. 

Another  extremely  powerful  and  brilliant  color  of 
this  class,  used  considerably  to  this  day  although  dis- 
covered nearly  fifty  years  ago,  is  the  dye  often  called, 

from  its  origin,  Aniline  Red.    It  was,  however,  named 

ioS 


The  Basic  Colors  109 

by  the  German  manufacturers,  Fuchsine,  from  its  rich, 
full,  crimson  shades,  resembling  the  deep  tints  of 
the  flower,  fuchsia,  while  the  French,  who  discovered 
and  manufactured  it  soon  after  the  close  of  Louis 
Napoleon's  Italian  campaign,  called  it  Magenta,  after 
the  famous  victory  of  that  name. 

About  this  time  some  German  chemists  discovered 
and  introduced  a  full,  rich,  brown  dye,  still  largely 
used  for  dyeing  leather  (kid  gloves  and  the  like), 
and,  naturally  enough,  gave  it  the  name  of  Bismarck 
Brown.  And  at  approximately  the  same  date  was 
discovered  the  very  valuable  blue  dyestuff,  perhaps 
the  best  of  the  whole  class,  with  quite  a  range  of 
full,  deep  shades,  and  with  considerable  fastness  to 
light,  called  Methylene  Blue. 

General  Properties. — The  early  colors  of  this  group 
are  the  dyestuffs  properly  known  as  the  "Aniline 
Colors  "  because  of  their  origin ;  although  this  name 
has  been  applied,  loosely,  to  all  of  the  thousands  of 
artificial  dyestuffs  without  regard  to  their  source  of 
composition.  To  the  chemist,  their  chemical  structure 
and  their  behavior  toward  reagents,  such  as  acids  and 
alkalies,  naturally  suggested  the  name  "  Basic  Colors." 
This  means  that  they  are  substances  with  strong  af- 
finity for  all  sorts  of  acids,  with  which  they  form 
more  or  less  stable  salts,  while  they  can  be  liberated 
from  these  salts  by  the  action  of  stronger  bases,  such 
as  ammonia,  or  the  fixed  alkalies,  soda  and  potash. 
Application — These  facts  were  discovered  by  Perkin 
while  trying  to  introduce  his  Mauveine  into  the  dyeing 
industry,  and  he  discovered  the  methods,  used 


HO  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

to  this  day,  for  applying  these  dyes  to  the  different 
textile  materials.  He  found  that  the  dyes  of  this 
class  have  a  strong  affinity  for  the  different  animal 
fibres,  such  as  wool,  silk,  leather,  etc.,  all  of  which 
seem  to  possess  some  acid  properties  of  their  own; 
but  pure  vegetable  materials,  like  cotton,  linen,  and 
paper,  from  which  all  impurities  such  as  vegetable 
acids,  gums,  etc.,  have  been  removed,  have  no  affinity 
at  all  for  even  the  most  powerful  of  the  Basic  dyes. 
A  cotton  handkerchief,  boiled  for  hours  in  a  strong 
solution  of  Methyl  Violet,  can  be  washed  in  a  few 
minutes  clear  of  every  particle  of  color,  while  a  piece 
of  silk  or  wool,  soaked  for  an  instant  in  the  same  dye- 
bath,  will  be  permanently  stained,  deep  and  full. 
Cotton,  Linen,  etc. — In  order  to  fasten  these  dyes  to 
vegetable  fibre  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  latter  a  dis- 
tinctly acid  character,  and  this  was  done  by  Perkin 
in  a  manner  still  used.  He  steeped  the  material  for 
several  hours  in  a  hot  bath  of  the  acid  vegetable  com- 
pound, tannic  acid  or  tannin,  found  so  largely  in 
hemlock  and  chestnut  bark,  sumac  leaves,  nut-galls, 
and  the  like;  and  then  loosely  fixed  the  tannin,  thus 
absorbed,  by  a  weak  bath  of  tartar  emetic.  Cotton  or 
linen  fabrics,  thus  "  mordanted,"  will  combine  with 
the  Basic  dyes  as  readily  and  as  firmly  as  any  animal 
fibre,  and  the  resulting  colors,  while  not,  as  a  rule, 
fast  to  light,  are  extremely  fast  to  washing. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  direct  cotton  dyes, 
both  Salt  colors  and  Sulphur  colors,  this  method  of 
dyeing,  for  skeins  or  piece  goods,  has  been  largely  dis- 
continued; but,  by  using  a  modification  of  this  process, 


The  Basic  Colors  in 

enormous  quantities  of  Basic  colors  are  still  em- 
ployed, on  cotton  and  linen,  in  the  manufacture  of 
calicoes,  organdies,  and  other  printed  fabrics. 

Curiously  enough  the  Salt  and  the  Sulphur  colors, 
in  almost  every  instance,  possess  sufficient  acid  prop- 
erties of  their  own  to  act  as  very  fair  mordants  for 
the  Basic  colors.  Accordingly,  it  is  not  uncommon 
for  dyers  to  "  top,"  with  Basic  colors,  cotton  or 
linen  goods  dyed  directly.  In  the  case  of  the  Salt  col- 
ors, this  increases  their  fastness  to  washing,  and  with 
Sulphur  colors  it  makes  the  shades  more  brilliant. 

Most  vegetable  materials  that  are  used  in  a  more 
or  less  natural  condition,  like  straw,  raffia,  grass, 
wood-shavings,  jute,  and  the  like,  contain  enough 
of  this  natural  tannic  acid  to  act  as  a  mordant  for  the 
Basic  colors,  which  may  in  this  direction  be  used  as 
direct  dyes. 

Wool,  Silk,  etc. — For  animal  fibres,  such  as  wool,  silk, 
furs,  feathers,  etc.,  the  Basic  colors  have  been  almost 
entirely  superseded,  in  commerce,  by  the  class  of  dye- 
stuffs  known  as  the  Acid  colors.  These  occur  in 
much  greater  abundance  and  variety,  and  can  be  ap- 
plied with  less  danger  of  spoiling  the  goods  by  uneven 
results.  For  leather,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Basic 
colors  are  still  largely  used,  especially  for  dark 
shades,  or  when  fastness  to  light  is  not  particularly 
desired.  On  bark-tanned  leather,  which  is  full  of  tan- 
nic acid,  they  take  hold  particularly  well,  and  are 
often  more  convenient  to  work  with  than  the  Acid 
colors,  although  they  do  not,  as  a  rule,  give  such  even 
results. 


ii2  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Uses — On  a  small  scale  it  is  hardly  worth  while  for 
the  amateur  to  try  to  use  these  Basic  colors  for  dye- 
ing either  cotton  or  linen.  The  difficulty  of  correctly 
and  evenly  mordanting  the  goods  is  quite  as  great  as 
that  of  applying  the  dyes  afterward.  And  the  Sul- 
phur colors  and  Vat  colors  will  be  found  quite  as 
fast  to  washing  as  the  best  mordanted  Basic  colors, 
with  the  additional  advantage  of  being  very  much 
faster  to  light,  as  well  as  easier  of  application. 

By  using  some  of  the  methods  of  the  calico  printer, 
it  is  possible  to  employ  these  dyes,  with  some  suc- 
cess, for  stencilling.  But  even  for  this  purpose,  ex- 
cepting, perhaps,  on  silk,  the  modern  Vat  colors  are 
more  convenient,  as  well  as  being  infinitely  more 
permanent  to  light. 

Disadvantages. — The  chief  drawback  to  the  use  of 
these  dyes  is  that  they  are  not  fast  to  light.  Several 
of  them — Methylene  Blue,  for  instance,  and  Methy- 
lene  Heliotrope  O  (Metz) — are  fairly  fast,  but  the 
rest,  especially  in  light  shades,  and  on  transparent  or 
translucent  fabrics,  are  liable,  when  exposed  to  sun- 
light for  any  length  of  time,  to  alter  their  shade  to  a 
very  marked  degree. 

For  dark  shades  this  is  not  so  noticeable,  for,  when 
goods  are  strongly  colored,  the  effect  of  the  sun- 
light on  at  least  the  deeper  portions  of  the  fibre  is 
largely  counteracted  by  the  color  of  the  goods  them- 
selves. So,  too,  an  opaque  material,  like  leather,  will 
hold  the  same  shade  of  color  distinctly  longer  than 
silk  or,  especially,  artificial  silk,  where  the  sunlight 
strikes  through  and  through  the  fibre,  without  any 


The  Basic  Colors  113 

protection  at  all.  But,  generally  speaking,  these  dyes 
will  not  stand  strong  sunlight. 

Nor  are  the  shades  of  these  Basic  dyes,  as  a  rule, 
as  attractive  as  those  of  other  classes.  The  strong 
and  brilliant,  not  to  say  coarse,  shades  of  Methyl  Vio- 
let, Malachite  Green,  Aniline  Red,  and  the  rest,  which 
created  such  a  sensation  when  they  first  appeared  in 
the  early  sixties,  were  the  particular  colors  which  pro- 
voked John  Ruskin  to  vehement,  if  not  unparliamen- 
tary remarks.  When  unmixed  they  certainly  do  har- 
row the  feelings  of  those  artistically  inclined,  as  much 
now  as  then.  They  are  rarely  seen  now,  for  the 
taste  of  the  public  has  been  sufficiently  educated  to 
make  a  demand  for  softer  shades.  As  before  ex- 
plained, nothing  is  easier  than  to  soften  these  fierce, 
harsh  colors  to  most  beautiful  and  harmonious  tints 
by  mixing  into  them  a  mere  trace  of  their  com- 
plementaries. 

Advantages. — In  spite  of  all  that  can  be  said  against 
them,  these  cheap,  brilliant,  and  very  powerful  dyes 
are  not  to  be  despised,  and  should  still  be  found  in  the 
outfit  of  a  well-equipped  dyer.  For  straw,  raffia,  chips, 
willow,  and  other  materials  used  so  largely  for  hats 
and  for  basket-work,  these  dyes  are  distinctly  valuable, 
and,  if  supplemented  by  fast  Acid  colors  for  light 
shades,  or  for  particularly  fast  effects,  will  be  found 
satisfactory  enough.  So,  too,  for  leather  they  will  be 
found  extremely  useful,  excepting  where  delicate 
shades,  fast  to  light,  are  required. 

Some  kinds  of  artificial  silk,  also,  especially  those 
made  from  nitro-cellulose  and  hence  possessed  of  acid 


H4  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

properties,  dye  far  better  with  these  than  with  any 
other  dyes,  although,  as  explained  above,  the  colors 
will  be  far  from  permanent. 

For  the  craftsman,  the  fastness  to  washing  of  these 
dyes  is  a  matter  of  very  little  importance,  because 
they  are  used  by  him  so  exclusively  upon  materials 
such  as  basketry,  leather,  and  artificial  silk,  which  are 
never  exposed  to  rough  handling  in  boiling  soap  and 
water. 

As  regards  their  fastness  to  light,  the  greater  num- 
ber of  these  must  be  classed  as  belonging  to  the  fourth 
class,  i.e.,  distinctly  fugitive  in  character.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  special  ones  can  be  selected  from 
the  group  which  are  not  only  distinctly  faster  than 
the  rest,  but  are  fast  enough  to  be  well  up  in  the 
third  class,  or  can  at  a  stretch,  be  placed  in  the  second 
class,  i.e.,  can  be  considered  as  satisfactory,  at  any 
rate,  against  any  but  very  severe  exposure. 
The  Fastest  Basic  Colors. — Among  these  may  be 
placed  the  well-known  dyestuff,  Methylene  Blue,  per- 
haps the  most  satisfactory  of  the  whole  class.  A 
very  good  color  also  is  Methylene  Heliotrope  O 
(Metz),  which,  while  less  brilliant,  is  far  faster  than 
the  many  brands  of  Methyl  Violet,  Hofmann's  Violet, 
and  the  rest,  which  to  most  dyers  are  the  characteristic 
basic  violets. 

For  blacks,  many  composite  dyes  are  on  the  market, 
made  by  the  different  color  houses,  known  as  Leather 
Blacks.  These  are  fast  enough,  for  deep  shades,  but 
not  to  be  trusted  when  thinned  down  to  form  greys. 
The  fastest  individual  basic  black  is  Diazine  Black, 


The  Basic  Colors  115 

(Kdle),  and  this  should  be  used  for  the  lighter 
shades. 

The  Red  and  Yellow  colors  are  distinctly  less  sat- 
isfactory. None  of  them  can  really  be  considered 
better  much  than  third  class.  Of  the  Reds  the  best 
is  probably  the  color  known  as  Safranine,  different 
brands  of  which,  giving  as  a  rule  the  yellow  shades, 
are  manufactured  by  the  various  color  houses;  one 
brand  being  about  as  fast  as  another.  For  the  bluish 
shades  of  red,  probably  the  fastest  is  Diazine  Red, 
(Kalle). 

As  regards  Yellow,  the  list  is  even  more  unsatis- 
factory. 

There  is  a  very  beautiful  golden  yellow,  known 
as  Auramine  O,  manufactured  by  most  of  the  color 
houses,  which,  however,  is  hardly  fast  enough  to  be 
in  the  third  class.  This  dyestuff,  by  the  way,  is 
injured  by  boiling,  and  therefore  should  never  be 
used  in  a  dye-bath  heated  to  over  130°  or  140° 
Fahrenheit.  Less  pleasing  in  shade,  but  somewhat 
faster  to  sunlight,  are  the  rather  orange  or  brownish 
yellows  known  as  New  Phosphine  G  (Cassella),  and 
Methylene  Yellow  (Metz) .  Somewhat  brighter  colors, 
though  less  fast  to  light,  are  produced  by  Thio  flavine 
T.  None  of  these,  however,  compares  in  fastness  to 
the  selected  colors  of  any  other  class  in  this  book. 

The  various  brands  of  the  common  dyestuff,  Bis- 
marck Brown,  are  largely  used  for  leather,  and  while 
probably  inferior  in  fastness  to  any  of  the  colors 
mentioned  above,  are  not  found  in  commercial  practice 
too  fugitive  to  be  pretty  satisfactory.  When,  how- 


n6  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ever,  materials  are  liable  to  be  exposed  for  any  length 
of  time,  two  or  three  weeks  in  succession,  to  direct 
powerful  sunlight,  it  will  generally  be  advisable  to 
use  mixed  browns  made  from  fast  Acid  colors. 

Upon  the  whole,  although  we  are  still  frequently 
called  upon  to  employ  them,  they  must,  from  the 
craftsman's  standpoint,  always  be  considered  as  un- 
trustworthy. They  should,  therefore,  never  be  used 
where  dyestuffs  of  any  other  class  can  be  made  to 
take  their  place. 


DYEING  DIRECTIONS 

The  application  of  Basic  colors  to  leather  dyeing 
will  be  discussed  later.  We  shall  now  discuss  their 
application  to  basketry  materials,  such  as  straw,  raffia, 
willow,  and  the  like,  where  they  will  be  found  useful. 

It  will  at  once  be  noticed  that  these  dyestuffs  are 
far  more  powerful  than  any  thus  far  met  with  in 
these  lessons.  Indeed,  while  there  will  be  needed,  for 
full  shades  of  the  Vat  colors,  pastes  from  about  15^ 
to  20$  of  the  total  weight  of  the  dry  materials,  of  the 
Sulphur  colors  from  7$  to  io#,  of  the  Salt  colors 
from  4$  to  6#,  and  of  the  Acid  colors  from  i}/£#  to 
about  3$,  most  of  these  Basic  colors  will  give  very 
full  shades  with  from  J^$  to  i$  of  the  total  weight 
of  dry  material. 

These  Basic  colors  do  not  dissolve  readily  in  water, 
but  are  easily  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  also  in  even 
very  dilute  acids.  Acids  form  salts  with  the  dyestuffs 
and  these  salts  dissolve  when  the  free  coloring  matters 


The  Basic  Colors  117 

do  not.  Accordingly  the  Basic  colors  should  always 
be  dissolved  carefully  in  a  separate  cup  or  vessel,  using 
hot  water,  and  adding,  for  each  spoonful  of  dyestuff, 
two  or  three  spoonfuls  of  acetic  acid  or,  if  more  con- 
venient, of  strong  vinegar. 

The  color,  thus  dissolved,  should  be  added  to  warm 
water  in  the  dye-pot,  preferably  through  a  fine  strainer 
or  piece  of  cheesecloth,  to  avoid  any  undissolved  par- 
ticles which  would  cause  spots.  The  well  wetted  goods 
are  immersed  in  this  dye-bath,  and  turned,  either  in  the 
cold  or  with  gentle  heat,  until  the  desired  shade  is 
reached,  or  the  bath  is  exhausted.  The  material  is 
then  taken  out,  rinsed  once  or  twice  in  water,  cold 
or  warm,  carefully  dried,  and,  if  necessary,  straight- 
ened and  pressed  or  ironed  out. 
Straw. — Care  must  be  taken  when  dyeing  these  ma- 
terials to  have  them  quite  free  from  grease  and  dirt, 
before  dyeing  them.  If  they  do  not  wet  readily  and 
evenly,  after  being  soaked  in  warm  water  for  a  couple 
of  hours,  they  should  be  carefully  washed  in  warm 
soapsuds,  and  thoroughly  rinsed.  The  soap,  however, 
should  be  of  good  quality  and,  especially  with  straw, 
either  in  the  form  of  straw  braid  or  made  up  into 
hats,  no  soda  or  other  free  alkali  should  be  allowed 
in  the  bath,  for  fear  of  injuring  the  surface  and  de- 
stroying the  gloss.  This  last  is  sometimes  improved 
by  dipping  the  straw,  after  dyeing  and  rinsing,  into 
a  weak  bath  of  Castile  (olive  oil)  soap,  or  of  Turkey 
red  oil  (about  one  tablespoon ful  to  the  gallon),  be- 
fore it  is  dried. 

In  dyeing  straw,  the  greatest  pains  must  be  taken 


ii8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

to  dye  it  evenly.  Braid  should  be  tied  up  in  loose 
hanks  or  bundles,  so  that  the  dyestufT  can  penetrate 
readily  into  every  part;  and  with  a  loop  of  tape  or 
string,  by  which  it  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in  the  dye- 
bath.  It  should  be  kept  in  motion  sufficiently  to  cause 
uniform  circulation  of  the  liquid.  The  dye-bath 
should  not  be  too  strong,  especially  at  the  beginning, 
and  should  be  heated  slowly  to  the  boiling  point,  where 
it  should  be  kept  for  half  an  hour  or  so,  to  insure 
penetration.  It  is  best  to  add  the  dyestufT  in  small 
portions,  from  time  to  time,  as  the  bath  becomes  ex- 
hausted, lifting  the  goods  out  of  the  bath  each  time, 
and  stirring  in  the  new  color  before  putting  the  goods 
back  again.  If  the  goods  once  become  uneven  it  is 
very  hard,  if  not  impossible,  to  get  them  level  again, 
or  to  strip  them  fully,  without  spoiling  the  materials. 
The  best  thing  to  do,  if  this  misfortune  overtakes 
them,  is  to  dye  them  some  dark  color,  where  minor 
irregularities  will  be  covered  up  and  pass  unnoticed. 
In  other  words,  "  Dump  it  in  the  black,"  as  the  dyers 
say. 

Ladies'  straw  hats  are  dyed  in  just  the  same  way  as 
the  loose  braid,  the  same  care  being  taken  to  clean  and 
wet  the  goods  thoroughly,  and  to  dye  evenly.  It  is 
often  of  interest  to  experiment  with  old  hats  of  good 
material,  but  faded,  and  to  dye  them  up  some  pleasant 
new  shade,  and  the  ribbons  and  trimmings  to  match. 
Sometimes  the  remains  of  the  old  coloring  will  strip 
well  by  washing  in  hot  soapsuds,  and  sometimes  by 
soaking  in  warm  water  containing  about  one  table- 
spoonful  to  the  gallon  of  sodium  hydro  sulphite — the 


The  Basic  Colors  119 

same  salt  that  was  used  as  a  reducing  agent  for  the 
Vat  colors  in  the  last  chapter. 

If  the  color  comes  out  well,  it  is  then  easy  enough, 
after  thoroughly  rinsing,  to  dye  them  any  desired 
shade.  Otherwise  they  can  be  dyed  Navy  Blue,  with 
a  good  shade  of  Methylene  Blue  and  a  trace  of  red, 
or  Seal  Brown,  using  a  large  amount  of  red  and  a 
little  yellow  and  blue;  or  they  can  be  dyed  black  with 
a  black  dye,  such  as  one  of  the  so-called  Leather 
Blacks,  usually  made  by  mixing  a  deep  purple  with 
a  yellow,  or  one  of  the  strong,  powerful  Basic  greens 
with  red. 

In  general,  a  well  dyed  piece  of  braid  is  supposed 
to  show  smooth,  even  coloring,  good  gloss,  and  good 
penetration  of  the  dyestuff  into  the  folds  of  the  straw. 
There  are,  however,  decided  possibilities  for  the  in- 
telligent worker  to  obtain  more  interesting  effects 
with  but  little  trouble.  It  is  very  easy  to  use  the 
principles,  already  explained,  of  rainbow  dyeing,  for 
straw  braid,  and  beautiful  effects  can  be  obtained  in 
this  way,  though  it  would  need  an  artistic  as  well  as 
an  experienced  milliner  to  fully  utilize  the  same  in 
making  hats.  But  it  frequently  happens,  when  dye- 
ing coarse  braid  without  boiling,  that  the  dye  pene- 
trates unevenly,  from  the  edge  towards  the  centre. 
Very  pretty  shaded  effects  can  be  produced  in  this 
way,  the  general  color  being  uniform,  and  yet  the 
straw,  when  looked  at  closely,  showing  tints  instead 
of  one  flat,  uniform  shade.  By  dyeing  the  straw  a 
solid  color  first,  and  then  shading  it  in  this  manner 


I2O  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

with  a  different  color,  very  interesting  effects  can  be 
produced. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  mention  here  that,  when 
bought  at  wholesale  places,  it  is  astonishing  how  cheap 
the  raw  materials  are.  Bodies  of  straw,  chip,  etc., 
framing  wire,  white  satin  ribbon,  artificial  flowers, 
wing  feathers,  etc.,  from  which  not  only  pretty  but 
even  handsome  and  elegant  head  coverings  can  be 
created,  and  cost  next  to  nothing  at  wholesale.  The 
mechanical  part  of  dyeing  all  these  things  can  be 
learned  in  a  very  short  time;  after  that  the  possibilities 
for  a  skilled  worker,  who  has  a  good  eye  for  color  and 
can  dye  to  the  desired  shades  herself  without  having 
to  hunt  them  far  and  near,  are  very  large. 
Raffia. — This  is  a  material  so  widely  used  in  the  public 
schools,  as  well  as  by  craftsmen,  for  weaving  baskets, 
that  it  is  well  worth  while  to  pay  more  attention  to 
the  dyeing  of  it.  It  is  quite  cheap,  and  very  bulky, 
and  takes  these  colors  extremely  well.  So  that  it  is 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  raw  materials  to 
experiment  with,  especially  if  there  is  a  school  or 
workshop  at  hand,  where  the  dyed  goods  can  be 
utilized. 

The  raffia  should  be  shaken  out  thoroughly,  and 
soaked  in  soft  water  over  night,  or  at  least  for  sev- 
eral hours,  to  thoroughly  wet  and  soften  it.  If  even 
shades  are  desired  it  can  then  be  dyed,  just  like  straw 
braid,  in  a  warm  dye-bath  containing  the  dyestuff, 
previously  dissolved  in  diluted  acetic  acid  or  vinegar. 

It  is  much  more  interesting,  however,  to  dye  it  rain- 
bow shades  from  the  start.  If  red,  blue,  and  yellow 


The  Basic  Colors  121 

dyestuffs  are  dissolved  separately,  in  different  cups  or 
pitchers,  these  solutions  can  be  used  to  replenish  the 
large  dye-pots  of  the  same  colors.  To  keep  the  colors 
reasonably  clear,  and  prevent  them  from  speedily  de- 
generating into  "  mud,"  it  is  well  to  keep  on  hand  one 
or  two  rinsing-pots,  full  of  warm  water,  or  to  have  a 
sink  near  at  hand,  where  each  hank  or  bundle  of  raffia 
should  be  rinsed  after  being  taken  out  of  one  dye-pot 
and  before  going  into  the  next. 

The  raffia,  when  thoroughly  wetted  out,  should,  for 
convenience'  sake,  be  made  up  into  separate  loosely- 
tied  bundles,  with  a  loop  on  each  by  which  to  handle  it 
in  the  dye-bath  without  staining  the  hands.  It  is 
well,  too,  to  have  some  oil-cloth  around,  for  these 
bundles  drip  a  good  deal,  and  the  dye-liquor  will 
stain  anything  of  an  animal  or  vegetable  nature  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  After  a  little  experiment- 
ing with  dipping  these  bundles  first  into  the  first  dye- 
pot  and  then — rinsing  each  time — into  the  other  two, 
it  will  be  easy  to  get  the  general  effect  of  any  par- 
ticular shade,  although,  when  examined  closely,  the 
fibre  will  show  the  presence  of  all  three  colors. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice,  here,  as  previously  with 
the  Salt  colors,  how  easy  it  is  to  modify  and  soften 
the  harsh  shades  of  the  individual  unmixed  dyestuffs. 
And,  as  before,  it  is  very  interesting  as  well  as  very 
useful  to  dye  some  bundles  even  shades  of  some  im- 
portant compound  color,  such  as  brown,  for  instance, 
or  olive  green,  or  steel  grey,  and  to  notice  how  the 
color  is  changed  on  the  fibre  by  adding  a  little  more 
red,  or  yellow,  or  blue  to  the  bath. 


122  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

The  "  eye  for  color  "  obtained  in  this  way  is  of  the 
greatest  possible  advantage  to  a  dyer,  whether  ama- 
teur or  professional;  and  where,  as  in  this  case,  the 
materials  are  cheap,  easy  to  dye,  and  possible  to  util- 
ize, every  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. 

Permanent  Colors  on  Basketry. — While  for  most  pur- 
poses the  straw,  raffia  chips,  willows,  etc.,  dyed  with 
Basic  colors  will  be  found  satisfactory  enough,  it  is 
best  for  craftsmen  who  are  making  a  specialty  of  very 
high-grade  baskets,  to  use  some  of  the  fast  Acid 
colors,  described  and  listed  in  the  next  chapter,  for 
their  reds  and  yellows,  and  for  all  mixed  shades  in 
which  these  two  colors  play  an  important  part.  The 
Acid  dyes  are  applied  in  a  boiling  bath,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  acetic  acid,  and,  while  not  fast  to  wash- 
ing, and  not  imparting  their  colors  as  readily  as  the 
Basic  dyes,  can  be  thoroughly  depended  upon,  even 
in  light  and  delicate  shades,  against  the  action  of  sun- 
light. Salt  dyes  can  also  be  used,  in  a  boiling  bath 
with  the  addition  of  some  salt,  but,  excepting  in  some 
special  cases,  are  not  superior  to  the  Acid  dyes,  al- 
though somewhat  faster  to  washing. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE    ACID    COLORS] 

THE  discovery  and  introduction  into  commerce 
of  Mauveine  and  the  other  Basic  dyes,  fo- 
cussed  the  attention  of  chemists,  all  over  the 
world,  upon  this  new  and  important  application  of 
their  science.  And  it  was  soon  noticed  that  certain 
organic  bodies,  of  a  decidedly  acid  character,  had 
the  power  of  dyeing  wool  and  silk.  These  early  dyes 
were  so-called  "  nitro "  compounds,  formed  by  the 
action  of  strong  nitric  acid  upon  derivatives  of  coal 
tar,  and  in  most  cases  they  gave  strong  and  brilliant, 
but  rather  fugitive,  shades  of  yellow.  The  most 
interesting  of  these,  perhaps,  was  the  compound 
known  as  "  picric  acid,"  which  at  one  time  was  con- 
siderably used  for  dyeing  silk  yellow.  Now  it  has 
been  abandoned  for  that  purpose  but  is  manufactured 
on  an  enormous  scale  for  use  as  an  explosive. 

These  original  acid  dyes  were  of  little  importance. 
But  in  the  early  seventies  chemists  began  to  make 
use  of  a  reaction — known  as  "  diazotizing  " — for 
making  new  organic  compounds  by  the  coupling  of 
aniline  or  bodies  similar  to  aniline,  with  all  sorts  and 
kinds  of  other  compounds  derived  from  coal  tar. 
The  number  of  derivatives  of  this  sort  proved  enor- 
mous, and  many  of  them  had  more  or  less  valuable 

123 


124  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

dyeing  properties.  And  in  a  very  short  time  new 
dyestuffs  had  been  discovered,  good,  bad,  and  indif- 
ferent, numbering  not  hundreds,  but  thousands. 

A  very  few  of  these  so-called  "  Azo  "  dyes  were 
'of  the  Basic  class,  like  Bismarck  Brown,  mentioned 
in  the  last  chapter.  Others,  discovered  ten  or  fifteen 
years  later,  constituted  the  class  of  Direct  Cotton 
colors  or  Salt  colors.  But  the  great  bulk  of  these 
colors  belonged  to  the  so-called  "  Acid  "  class,  form- 
ing salts  with  bases  and  alkalies,  and  being  liberated 
from  the  salts  by  strong  acids. 

The  number  of  Acid  Azo  colors  is  very  large.  In 
the  catalogues  of  commercial  coal-tar  colors  there  are 
some  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  dyes  which  have 
been  picked  out  of  the  rest  as  having  sufficient  value 
to  be  carefully  described,  and  to  have  been  placed 
on  the  market  by  the  great  dye  houses.  Most  of 
these  are  red  and  orange  colors,  with  a  few  yellows. 
As  a  rule  they  are  brilliant  and  clear,  but,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  not  particularly  fast  to  light. 

When  these  were  introduced  it  was  soon  recognized 
that  they  were  of  practically  no  value  for  cotton  and 
linen.  They  are  as  a  rule  much  more  soluble  than 
the  Basic  dyes  of  the  foregoing  chapter,  and  hence 
are  occasionally  used  as  stains  for  wood,  rattan,  and 
other  vegetable  materials  where  considerable  pene- 
tration is  needed,  without  fastness  to  washing.  But 
such  use  is  of  little  importance. 
Properties. — Acid  dyes  are  almost  exclusively  em- 
ployed for  dyeing  wool,  silk,  feathers,  and  other  ani- 
mal fibres,  and  for  this  they  are  extremely  valuable. 


The  Acid  Colors  125 

The  introduction  of  the  Acid  Azo  colors  so  sim- 
plified and  improved  the  dyeing  of  wool  and  silk, 
that  every  effort  was  made  to  increase  the  range  of 
colors.  And  when  it  was  found  that  the  Azo  colors 
were  weak  on  the  line  of  blue,  purple,  and  green,  ef- 
forts were  made,  which  after  several  years  proved 
successful,  to  change  the  various  powerful  Basic  dyes, 
the  Methyl  Violets,  Fuchsin  or  Aniline  Red,  Aniline 
Blue,  Malachite  Green,  and  the  rest,  into  Acid  dyes, 
so  that  they  could  all  be  used  in  the  same  dye-baths. 
This  has  resulted  in  a  very  wide  range  of  colors  in- 
deed, for  the  Acid  Azo  colors  cover  fully  all  the 
shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  especially  of  red,  from 
scarlets  of  all  sorts  and  kinds  to  deep  full  crimsons. 
And  then  the  remaining  shades  are  covered  by  the 
acidified  or  sulphonated  Basic  colors. 

These  latter,  by  the  way,  though  very  brilliant  and 
strong  and  rich,  are  no  faster  to  light  than  the  original 
Basic  colors  from  which  they  are  derived.  Of  late 
years  the  Acid  colors  have  held  their  own,  and  still 
monopolize  the  commercial,  as  well  as  the  special,  dye- 
ing of  wool  and  silk  excepting  under  unusual  circum- 
stances, when  considerable  fastness  to  washing  is  re- 
quired. 

With  these  dyes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Basic  dyes, 
the  fastness  to  washing  is  of  little  or  no  consequence 
to  the  craftsman.  Nobody  expects  to  scrub  hand-dyed 
leather;  and  woollen  and  silk  goods,  unless  specially 
prepared,  are  not  supposed  to  be  turned  over  to  the 
tender  mercies  of  the  family  laundress.  However,  it 
may  be  well  to  emphasize  here  the  fact  that  these  dyes 


126  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

are  as  a  rule  "  stripped  "  quite  readily  by  boiling  in 
a  neutral  soap-bath.  And  when  the  craftsman  wishes 
to  dye  wool  or  silk  fast  to  washing,  he  must  either 
use  the  Salt  dyes,  in  a  boiling  bath,  or  must  dye,  with 
special  precautions  against  tendering,  with  either  the 
Sulphur  or  the  Vat  Dyes. 

With  regard  to  light- fastness,  however,  the  case  is 
different.  A  great  many  hundreds,  possibly  even 
thousands,  of  Acid  dyes  have  been  discovered,  and 
scores  of  them,  covering  every  shade,  can  be  obtained 
in  the  open  market.  Most  of  these  are  of  but  little 
permanence,  but  a  few  products,  from  each  of  the  great 
color  houses,  can  be  selected,  whose  fastness  to  light 
is  extremely  satisfactory.  The  dyes  in  the  following 
list  can  hardly  be  considered  as  fast  as  the  Vat  dyes, 
previously  described,  but  are  probably  faster,  as  a 
class,  than  any  other  class  mentioned  in  this  book. 
They  would  rank  at  the  very  top  of  the  second  class, 
and  some  at  least  would  fairly  enter  the  first  class,  be- 
ing absolutely  satisfactory  against  even  the  strongest 
sunlight. 

A  series  of  skeins,  dyed  all  colors  of  the  rainbow, 
including  many  delicate  light  shades,  with  a  red,  yel- 
low, and  blue  dye  of  those  mentioned  below,  with- 
stood an  exposure  test  which  quite  ruined  a  similar 
set  of  skeins  dyed  with  the  very  best  natural  dye- 
stuffs.  And  a  large  hand- woven  rug,  made  of  wool 
dyed  light  shades  with  the  same  dyes,  was  placed  for 
two  weeks  on  a  roof  in  New  York,  half  of  it  being 
covered  with  boards  and  the  rest  exposed  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  July  sunlight,  and  at  the  end  of  this 


The  Acid  Colors  127 

time  it  was  impossible  to  notice  any  difference  in 
shade. 

The  colors  in  the  following  list  are  to  be  used,  prin- 
cipally, for  wool.  They  will  all  dye  silk,  leather,  and 
feathers,  but  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  those  ma- 
terials some  additional  dyes  may  be  mentioned,  which 
are  specially  suited  for  them. 

List  of  Selected  Dyes. — 

Badische—  Palatine  Scarlet  A,  3  R 
Palatine  Light  Yellow,  R 
Tartrazine   (yellow) 
Wool  Fast  Blue,  B  L 

Cassella—   Brilliant  Cochineal,  RR 
Acid  Yellow,  AT,  cone. 
Tetracyanol,  S  F 

Elberfeld — Azo  Crimson,  S 
Fast  Red,  A 
Fast  Yellow,  3  G 
Alizarine  Blue,  SAP 
Cashmere  Black,  3  B   N 

Kalle—        Biebrich  Acid  Red,  2  B 
Wool   Yellow,   TA 
Nero  cyanine  Blue,   B 
Nero  cyanine  Black,  D 

Metz—         Fast  Acid  Red,  M 

Fast  Acid  Orange,  G 
Fast  Acid  Yellow,  3  G 
Fast  Acid   Blue,   B  B 

DYEING  DIRECTIONS 

The  Acid  dyes,  like  the  Basic,  are  used  in  an  acid 
bath,  but  for  a  different  reason.  With  the  Basic  dyes 
acetic  acid  or  some  other  weak  acid  is  added,  for  the 
purpose  of  readily  dissolving  the  color.  In  the  case 
of  the  Acid  dyes,  however,  the  dyestuffs  are  almost 


ia8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

always  put  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  the  potassium 
or  ammonium  salts  of  the  color  acid.  And  the  pres- 
ence of  some  acid  is  always  necessary,  to  liberate  the 
color  acid,  and  allow  it  to  combine  with  the  basic  prin- 
ciples existing  in  the  animal  fibres. 

For  Wool. — The  goods,  well  washed  and  soaked, 
are  warmed  gently  in  a  bath  containing,  besides  the 
dyestuff  dissolved  in  plenty  of  water,  a  little  sul- 
phuric acid  and  a  good  deal  of  Glauber's  salt.  Both 
acid  and  salt  should  be  free  from  iron,  or  the  shade 
will  be  dulled. 

The  amount  of  acid  to  be  used  may  vary  between 
considerable  limits  without  affecting  the  results.  If 
too  much  is  present,  there  is  danger  of  injuring  the 
feel  and  the  lustre  of  the  fibre.  If  there  is  not  enough 
acid  in  the  bath,  the  color  will  wash  right  out  of  the 
wool,  as  soon  as  it  is  rinsed.  In  general  it  is  well  to 
start  with  about  one  tablespoonful  of  dilute  (30$)  sul- 
phuric acid  for  each  gallon  of  dye-liquor  and  about 
twice  that  amount  of  Glauber's  salt. 

It  is  hard  to  tell  just  what  is  the  function  of  the 
Glauber's  salt.  It  seems,  however,  to  open  up  the 
pores  of  the  wool  in  some  way,  and  to  make  it  dye 
more  evenly  and  deeply.  The  bath  is  gently  heated, 
with  constant  stirring  of  the  goods,  until  the  right 
shade  is  produced,  or,  if  it  is  desired  to  exhaust  the 
bath  and  so  waste  no  color,  until  near  the  boiling 
point. 

The  goods  when  taken  out  of  the  dye-bath  must  be 
washed  very  thoroughly,  to  remove  the  last  trace  of 
acid,  which  otherwise  on  drying  would  ruin  the  wool. 


The  Acid  Colors  129 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  Acid  dyes  hardly 
affect  cotton  in  the  least,  and  so  the  goods  dyed  in 
this  way  must  be  free  from  vegetable  fibres,  if  level 
dyeings  are  to  be  obtained. 

In  dyeing  wool  skeins  commercially  it  is,  of  course, 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  the  colors  perfectly 
level  and  uniform.  This  uniformity  is  obtained  easily 
enough,  when  using  these  Acid  dyes,  by  having  the 
wool  thoroughly  wet  before  placing  it  in  the  dye- 
bath;  by  having  it  well  loosened  out  and  well  stirred 
so  that  the  color  will  penetrate  evenly  every  part  of 
the  material;  and,  finally,  by  starting  the  bath  at  a 
moderate  temperature,  and  heating  it  gradually,  until 
the  proper  shade  is  obtained. 

For  handicraft  dyeing  the  student  is  strongly  ad- 
vised to  practise  shaded  and  irregular  effects,  the  so- 
called  Rainbow  dyeing,  with  wool  in  skeins,  just  as, 
in  previous  lessons,  with  raffia  and  with  cotton.  By 
using  coarse  heavy  yarns,  very  beautiful  two  and 
three  color  effects  can  be  produced,  which,  when  used 
for  embroidery  or  weaving,  will  prove  most  inter- 
esting. 

Great  care  must  always  be  taken,  in  wool  dyeing, 
to  preserve  the  lustre  and  the  soft  effect  of  the  wool, 
and  to  avoid  felting.  This  can  best  be  done  by  using 
moderate  amounts  of  acid,  by  dyeing  at  moderate  tem- 
perature and  never  raising  the  dye-bath  quite  to  the 
boil;  and  finally,  by  handling  the  goods  as  little  as 
possible  in  the  acid  dye-bath,  consistent  of  course  with 
exposing  every  portion  equally  to  the  action  of  the 
dyestuff.  Cotton  skeins  can  be  worked  and  rubbed, 


130  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

and  pulled,  and  thrown  up  and  down  in  the  hot  dye- 
bath,  without  fear  of  injuring  them.  But  wool  should 
be  handled  carefully,  and  worked  in  the  dye-pot 
quietly  and  gently,  just  sufficiently  to  accomplish  two 
results.  First,  the  wool  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot 
should  be  raised  by  a  lifting  and  turning  motion  and 
replaced  by  fresh  material;  and  second,  when  the 
wool  is  lowered  back  into  the  liquor  it  should  be 
loosened,  so  as  to  allow  the  dye-liquor  to  penetrate  the 
mass. 


CHAPTER  IX 

DYEING    FEATHERS 

THE  use  of  feathers  and,  especially,  of  ostrich 
feathers  for  millinery  has,  during  the  past  few 
years,  increased  to  enormous  proportions. 
Besides  the  home  product,  from  California  and  the 
Western  States,  which,  however,  is  but  small,  the 
importation  of  raw  feathers  from  abroad  has  aver- 
aged, during  the  past  two  or  three  years,  nearly  eight 
millions  of  dollars.  As  yet,  the  dyeing  of  these  fea- 
thers is  almost  entirely  confined  to  professionals — 
their  processes,  although  simple,  not  being  generally 
known  or  published. 

As  before  mentioned,  feathers,  like  other  animal 
products,  can  be  colored  with  ease  by  either  the  Basic 
or  the  Acid  dyestuffs.  In  practice,  as  with  wool  and 
silk,  the  Acid  dyes  are  universally  used,  because  of 
their  greater  variety,  their  greater  fastness  to  light, 
and  their  better  levelling  properties.  To  use  the  Acid 
colors  with  success  the  following  points  must  be  care- 
fully considered.  First,  the  baths  must  be  such  as 
not  to  ruin  or  "  burn  "  the  feathers,  i.e.,  they  must 
leave  intact  the  tiny  barbules  upon  the  barbs  or 
"flues,"  as  the  dyers  call  them,  which  make  the 
feather  look  soft  and  full  and  not  stringy. 

Second,   the  quill  must   be   fully   dyed,   and  the 

131 


132  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

shaft,  or  stem  of  the  feather,  must  also  be  colored 
just  as  well  as  the  flues.  This  is  a  very  common  defect 
in  feather  dyeing.  The  quill,  being  hard  and  stiff  and 
horny,  is  much  more  difficult  to  penetrate  with  the 
dyestuff  than  the  soft,  delicate  fibres.  If  the  feather, 
therefore,  is  dyed  hurriedly  or  carelessly,  the  latter 
may  be  colored  dark  and  full,  long  before  the  quill  or 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem  has  been  dyed  at  all.  This 
necessitates  painting  the  stem  after  the  finishing 
process,  with  oil  colors,  to  match  the  rest  of  the 
feather. 

Finally,  after  dyeing,  the  feather  must  be  properly 
finished  so  that  the  flues  will  not  look  woolly  on  the 
one  hand,  nor  stringy  on  the  other  hand,  but  soft  and 
full. 

The  whole  secret  of  feather  dyeing  lies  in  the 
proper  attainment  of  these  three  requirements,  suc- 
cess in  which  depends  respectively  upon  (a)  the  com- 
position of  the  dye-bath,  (b)  the  method  of  dyeing, 
and  (c)  the  finishing  process. 

(a)  The  Dye-bath — As  is  universally  the  case  when 
using  Acid  dyes  on  animal  fibres,  the  bath  must  be 
distinctly  acid,  in  order  to  release  the  free  color 
acid  from  the  dyestuff,  which,  in  its  commercial  form, 
is  a  salt.  A  very  little  experimenting  with  ostrich 
feathers  will  show  that  the  presence,  not  only  of 
mineral  acids  like  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric,  but  even 
of  the  much  milder  organic  acids,  like  acetic  or  citric, 
is  liable  to  "  burn "  the  feather  badly  and  convert 
a  well  barbuled  flue  into  a  bare  fibre  which,  under 
no  conditions,  can  look  other  than  stringy.  The 


Dyeing  Feathers  133 

acid  commonly  used  by  the  professionals  is  oxalic  acid, 
but,  of  late  years,  dyeing  chemists  have  been  intro- 
ducing into  the  dyeing  industry  the  use  of  the  volatile 
and  pungent  formic  acid,  and  in  the  dyeing  of  ostrich 
feathers  this  acid  has  been  found  particularly  ad- 
vantageous. Excepting  when  a  large  number  of 
feathers,  strung  together  on  a  line,  are  to  be  dyed 
the  same  color,  it  is  customary  to  dye  feathers  in  an 
agateware  pan  or  flat  dish,  and  about  two-thirds  of 
a  teaspoonful  of  formic  or  oxalic  acid  in  a  pint  of 
water,  is  about  the  right  proportion  for  one  or  two 
feathers  at  a  time. 

(b)  Method  of  Dyeing — 

'Softening  the  Feathers. — Before  immersing  the 
feathers  in  the  dye-bath  the  greatest  pains  should  be 
taken,  first,  to  thoroughly  cleanse  them,  and,  second, 
to  thoroughly  soften  them.  As  a  rule,  the  feathers 
are  bleached  before  dyeing  and  in  this  process  they 
generally  lose  all  of  their  original  grease.  But  if  they 
show  signs  of  wetting  unevenly  when  plunged  into  hot 
water,  they  should  be  carefully  scrubbed  with  Castile 
soap  and  hot  water,  and  well  rinsed  till  the  last  trace 
of  soap  has  been  removed. 

The  clean  feathers  should  then  be  thoroughly  soft- 
ened by  immersing  them  in  hot  water.  This  is  espe- 
cially important  as  regards  the  quills  and  the  stems, 
which  may  have  to  soak  for  half  an  hour  or  more 
before  they  are  soft  enough  to  take  the  dyestuff. 
Dyeing  the  Feathers. — After  softening,  each  feather 
is  held  by  the  tip,  and  laid,  butt  first,  in  the  dye-bath. 


134  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

For  light  shades  the  dye-liquor  may  remain  cold,  but 
for  darker  shades  it  is  best  to  enter  the  feathers  at  a 
low  temperature,  and  raise  the  latter  very  gently  till 
the  right  shade  is  reached,  or  the  bath  is  decidedly  hot, 
although  still  far  below  the  boiling  point. 

Above  all,  care  must  be  taken  to  dye  the  quill  and 
butt  first,  and  to  keep  them  in  the  bath  very  much 
longer  than  the  flues  and  tip.  The  latter  will  dye  in 
a  minute  or  two,  but  to  thoroughly  stain  the  former 
may  take  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour. 
(c)  Finishing — When  the  desired  shade  has  been 
reached,  the  feather  is  taken  from  the  bath  and  rinsed 
thoroughly  in  warm  water,  to  get  rid  of  the  loose 
color.  Then  it  must  be  "  starched."  This  is  the 
technical  name  for  the  drying  process,  and  is  very 
different  from  the  laundryman's  idea  of  "  starching," 
although  the  two  processes  have  occasionally  been  con- 
fused, with  most  disastrous  results,  as  far  as  the 
feathers  were  concerned. 

Dry-starching. — After  the  dyed  feathers  have  been 
thoroughly  rinsed,  they  should  be  partially  dried,  by 
wiping  with  a  soft  piece  of  cloth,  like  a  handkerchief 
or  piece  of  cheesecloth,  and  then  laid  flat  on  a  piece 
of  stiff  paper  and  covered  with  a  heaping  tablespoonful 
or  so  of  dry,  finely  powdered  starch  (on  a  small  scale 
the  quality  known  as  "  Electric  Starch  "  is  eminently 
satisfactory).  The  starch  is  thoroughly  rubbed  into 
the  feather  with  the  fingers,  and  then  the  feather,  full 
of  starch,  is  beaten  and  dusted  against  the  edge  of  the 
table  or  the  back  of  the  hand  until  the  starch  has  all 


Dyeing  Feathers  135 

been  shaken  out.  After  one  or  two  repetitions  of  this 
process,  the  feather  will  be  found  not  only  dry  but 
with  the  barbules  properly  filled  out.  Sometimes  the 
feather,  thus  treated,  has  a  woolly  look,  the  starching 
process  having  gone  too  far.  In  this  case  it  should  be 
dampened  in  cold  water,  and  restarched. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  any  starch  paste  be 
allowed  to  touch  or  form  on  the  flues.  The  starching 
must  be  done  in  the  cold  and  with  the  unbroken  starch 
grains. 

Wet-starching. — Some  dyers  prefer  wet-starching  to 
the  dry  process  just  described.  In  this  process,  the 
feathers,  after  dyeing  and  rinsing,  are  worked  for  a 
minute  or  two  in  a  thick  milk  (not  paste)  made  by 
stirring  one  or  two  large  tablespoon fuls  of  dry  starch 
in  half  a  pint  or  so  of  cold  water,  till  all  the  lumps 
have  been  broken  up.  After  this  milk  has  been  thor- 
oughly rubbed  into  every  part  of  the  feather,  the  latter 
is  taken  out,  dried  roughly  by  wiping  with  cheesecloth, 
and  then  by  wrapping  between  blotting  paper  or  folded 
cheesecloth  and  running  carefully  through  a  not  too 
tight  wringer.  The  feather  is  then  taken  out  and  thor- 
oughly dried,  either  by  laying  it  on  the  table  in  the 
sunlight  or  in  a  warm  room  for  some  time,  or,  if  very 
great  care  is  taken,  by  holding  and  moving  it  over  a 
hot-air  register,  or  high  over  the  stove  or  gas  flame. 
Of  course,  if  this  is  done  carelessly  and  too  great 
heat  is  applied,  some  of  the  starch  grains  will  be  con- 
verted into  paste,  and  the  feather  probably  ruined. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  "  bone  dry,"  as  the  dyers  call 
it,  the  feather  is  beaten  against  the  back  of  the  hand, 


136  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

or  edge  of  the  table  until  all  the  starch  is  shaken  out. 
Dyeing  in  the  Starch. — When  dyeing  light  shades 
time  may  be  saved  by  dyeing  and  wet-starching  at  the 
same  time,  in  the  same  bath.  The  feather,  thoroughly 
soaked  in  hot  water,  is  placed  in  the  starch  milk,  to 
which  a  quarter  teaspoonful  or  so  of  formic  acid  and 
a  little  dyestuff  have  been  added,  and  then  worked,  in 
the  cold,  until  the  proper  shade  has  been  reached,  the 
starch  being  taken  up  at  the  same  time.  Then  on  dry- 
ing and  beating,  the  feather  will  come  out  both  dyed 
and  finished.  This  has  the  disadvantage  of  leaving  a 
little  acid  in  the  finished  feather,  but  when  using  small 
quantities  of  oxalic  acid,  this  is  of  little,  if  any  im- 
portance. 

Suggestions  as  to  Feather  Dyeing — These  processes 
should  enable  any  intelligent  craftsman  to  dye  even  the 
most  costly  and  most  delicate  feathers  without  danger 
of  spoiling  them.  Shade  effects  in  one,  two,  or  more 
colors  can  be  easily  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  little 
ingenuity,  remembering  always  that  the  quill  and  the 
stem  are  very  much  more  difficult  to  dye  than  the 
flues  or  tip.  It  will  be  remembered  that  comparatively 
few  ostrich  feathers  are  now  used,  singly;  the  plumes 
so  abundantly  in  use,  nowadays,  being  almost  invari- 
ably built  up  by  sewing  two  or  usually  three  feathers 
together,  one  underneath  the  other,  the  stem  being 
carefully  shaved  down  so  as  not  to  make  them  too 
clumsy. 

Very  charming  effects  can  be  obtained  by  dyeing 
the  individual  feathers  different  but  harmonious 
colors,  and  then  combining  them  into  one  plume  later. 


Dyeing  Feathers  137 

But,  usually,  the  plume  is  made  first,  and  then  dyed 
afterwards.  It  may  be  suggested,  here,  that  very 
beautiful  effects  can  be  produced  by  taking  large, 
handsome,  single  feathers,  before  they  are  bleached, 
and  dyeing  them  a  pleasant  shade  of  red  or  blue  or  of 
some  mixed  color.  The  natural  black  of  the  feather, 
with  its  irregular  markings,  often  gives  very  interest- 
ing results,  and  the  expense  is  much  less  than  that  of 
a  built-up  feather. 

After  the  starching  process,  the  dried  feather  is 
usually  finished  by  "  curling,"  a  process  simple  enough 
in  itself,  but  which  had  best  be  left  to  the  professional, 
for  fear  of  injury.  The  bleaching  of  feathers,  also, 
is  a  process  which  is  hardly  to  be  attempted  by  the 
amateur,  unless  he  is  prepared  to  spend  a  good  deal  of 
his  time  and  money  in  experimenting.  The  process, 
however,  is  well  understood  by  dyeing  chemists  and 
can  be  learned  without  much  difficulty,  by  a  careful 
student  with  some  knowledge  of  chemistry. 
Stripping  Feathers. — By  soaking  in  warm  water, 
containing  a  teaspoonful  or  so  of  ammonia  water  to 
the  pint,  and  then  carefully  washing  with  soap  and  hot 
water,  these  Acid  colors  can  be,  as  a  rule,  stripped  from 
feathers  almost  entirely.  This  does  not,  to  be  sure, 
improve  the  original  quality  of  the  goods,  but,  care- 
fully done,  its  bad  effects  are  hardly,  if  at  all,  per- 
ceptible, and  it  enables  the  dyer  to  remedy  a  bad  piece 
of  dyeing,  or  to  dye  an  old  feather  that  has  become 
faded  or  discolored  by  exposure.  This,  of  course, 
does  not  apply  to  black  dyed  feathers. 

After  white   feathers  have  been   worn   for   some 


138  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

time  they  generally  become  soiled  and  yellow.  If  the 
stock  was  good  to  start  with  they  can  be  immensely 
improved  in  appearance,  if  not  made  quite  equal  to 
new,  by  simply  scrubbing  them  with  a  piece  of  Castile 
soap,  in  hot  water,  and  then,  after  thorough  rinsing, 
by  dyeing  them,  in  the  starch-bath,  with  a  very  faint 
trace  of  blue  or  bluish  violet. 

Black  Dyeing  of  Feathers. — This  is  the  most  difficult 
process  in  feather  dyeing,  and,  as  a  rule,  should 
be  avoided  by  the  amateur.  It  is  impossible,  so  far,  to 
get  a  thoroughly  good  black  by  the  use  of  any  artificial 
dyestuff,  or  any  simple  process,  The  best  Acid  blacks 
on  the  market,  dyed  with  the  greatest  care,  give  a  color 
to  feathers  that  by  themselves  may  look  pretty  well, 
but,  when  compared  with  first-class  products,  show 
dull  and  grey. 

The  only  satisfactory  blacks,  so  far,  are  produced 
by  a  long  and  tedious  series  of  operations,  depending 
on  mordanting  for,  and  dyeing  with,  logwood.  As  a 
rule,  the  professional  black  dyer — and  really  good  ones 
are  few  and  far  between — allows  at  least  five  or  six 
days  for  the  process,  the  different  steps  of  which  he 
usually  guards  as  a  valuable  secret,  which  indeed  it  is. 
The  writer  possesses  one  or  two  of  these  formulas, 
obtained,  as  special  marks  of  favor,  from  first-class 
dyers,  but  has  never  had  occasion  to  test  them  thor- 
oughly, and  therefore  is  unwilling  to  publish  them 
here.  Good  dyeing  chemists  have  tried  again  and 
again  to  shorten  and  simplify  the  process,  and  have 
had  some  success.  But  to  this  day  no  color  has  been 
found  to  replace  logwood,  and  this  black  dyeing  of 


Dyeing  Feathers  139 

feathers  is  perhaps  the  only  dyeing  problem  that  has 
not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily  solved  with  the  aid  of 
modern  dyestuffs. 

Painting  Feathers. — Some  dyers,  instead  of  dyeing 
feathers,  paint  them.  They  dip  the  cleansed  and 
carefully  dried  feather,  for  a  moment,  into  a  bath 
of  oil  paint,  thinned  greatly  with  gasolene.  The 
feather  is  then  taken  from  the  bath,  dried  by  waving 
in  the  air,  and,  when  thoroughly  dry,  finished  by  beat- 
ing and,  if  necessary,  with  a  light  dry-starching. 

The  results,  for  colors,  are  fairly  satisfactory  but 
are  not  so  permanent  as  the  dyeing  process.  In  an 
oil  paint  the  solid  coloring  matter,  or  pigment,  is 
ground  up  finely  in  boiled  linseed  oil,  an  oil  which 
has  the  property  of  drying  to  a  firm  varnish  when 
exposed  to  the  air.  This  mixture  is  thinned  with 
turpentine  or  gasolene  to  the  desired  consistency  be- 
fore using. 

It  is  evident  that,  in  coloring  feathers,  if  enough 
oil  is  applied  to  fasten  the  pigment  very  firmly  to  the 
flues,  there  is  danger  at  the  same  time  of  plastering 
the  fine  barbules  so  that  they  will  never  get  back  to 
their  proper  places,  and  the  product  will  be  hopelessly 
stringy.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  amount  of  oil  is 
so  small,  thanks  to  the  abundant  thinning  with  gaso- 
lene, that  there  is  no  fear  of  its  sticking  the  barbules 
together,  there  will  hardly  be  enough  oil  left  to  firmly 
fasten  the  pigment  to  the  flues,  on  drying,  and  the 
color  is  apt  to  rub,  and  to  wear  off  quickly. 

Paint,  thinned  with  gasolene,  has  been  applied  to 
feathers  occasionally  by  means  of  stencils,  some  of 


140  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  so-called  "  barred  "  effects,  looking  like  the  feath- 
ers from  a  barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen,  being  made  in 
this  way — the  color,  black  paint  or  varnish,  greatly 
thinned,  being  applied  by  means  of  an  "  air  brush  "  or 
atomizer.  Occasionally  very  large,  wide,  and  hand- 
some feathers  have  appeared  decorated  with  flowers 
and  other  figures,  in  bright  colors,  applied  in  the  same 
way  with  an  air  brush,  sometimes  with  the  help  of 
stencils,  but  generally  free-hand.  These  effects  are 
often  rather  crude  and  inartistic,  but  there  is  no  reason 
why,  skilfully  used,  this  method  of  decorating  the 
backs  of  feathers  might  not  produce  interesting  effects. 


CHAPTER  X 

LEATHER  AND  LEATHER    DYEING 

SO  far  as  can  be  learned,  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  the  first  materials  used  by  man  for  cloth- 
ing and  coverings  were  the  skins  of  animals. 
In  its  natural  condition,  however,  the  hide  stripped 
from  a  dead  animal  has  certain  properties  which 
greatly  interfere  with  such  use.  When  dry  it  is 
stiff  and  hard;  when  moist  it  rapidly  decomposes, 
and  when  exposed  to  hot  water  it  swells  and  in  time 
dissolves.  These  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome  be- 
fore skins  and  furs  could  be  properly  utilized.  And, 
accordingly,  in  the  history  of  every  nation  and  race, 
one  of  the  very  earliest  of  all  developing  industries 
was  the  art  of  leather  making;  that  is,  of  converting 
the  hard  and  easily  decomposed  rawhide  into  a  soft, 
pliable,  and  comparatively  permanent  substance,  well 
suited  for  the  use  of  man. 

In  most  uncivilized  nations  this  conversion  was 
accomplished  by  rubbing  and  working  some  oily  or 
greasy  substance  into  the  hide,  until  it  was  thoroughly 
soft  and  flexible.  Thus,  in  our  Indian  tribes,  the  old 
squaws  would  turn  the  deer  skins  and  the  pelts  of 
various  fur-bearing  animals  into  beautifully  soft  and 
strong  leather,  by  rubbing  and  working  into  them  the 

141 


142  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

brains  of  the  animals.  The  Esquimaux  and  other 
Northern  tribes  from  time  immemorial,  too,  have 
worked  out  this  method  with  great  perfection.  In- 
deed without  it  they  would  have  been  unable  to  sur- 
vive at  all. 

In  other  parts  of  the  world  it  was  discovered  that 
rawhide  could  be  made  more  durable  by  treatment  with 
metallic  salts,  especially  with  alum,  and  then,  by  soften- 
ing this  product  by  rubbing  in  some  oily  material,  a 
very  fair  leather  could  be  produced.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  warmer  climates,  as  for  instance  among  the 
Egyptians,  the  very  earliest  records  show  the  use  of 
vegetable  extracts,  containing  the  substances  now 
known  as  tannins,  for  softening  and  preserving  skins; 
and  these  races  understood  the  art  of  dyeing,  painting, 
gilding,  and  embossing  the  leather  thus  made,  and  used 
it  for  shoes,  straps,  aprons,  and  harness. 

The  Romans  and  Babylonians  were  famous  for 
their  leather  industry,  and  the  ancient  Romans  not 
only  imported  but  manufactured  it  themselves,  and 
used  it  freely.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  greatest  de- 
velopments in  the  art  were  made  by  the  Moors 
in  Spain,  whose  leather,  commonly  called  Cor- 
dovan leather,  from  the  city  which  was  the  centre 
of  the  industry,  has  probably  never  been  equalled  for 
beauty  and  importance.  This  Cordovan  leather,  of 
which  fine  specimens  are  still  to  be  found  in  museums 
and  private  collections,  was  made  of  sheepskin,  tanned 
with  bark.  It  was  ornamented  with  silver  foil,  laid 
on  a  backing  of  size,  and  covered  with  a  yellow  var- 
nish or  lacquer,  sometimes  tinted  with  bitumen.  This 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          143 

protected  both  the  leather  and  design  very  perfectly 
from  injury  by  air  or  moderate  moisture,  and,  being 
done  on  a  large  scale  with  splendid  designs,  was  used 
largely  for  handsome  wall  coverings,  competing 
favorably  with  tapestries  manufactured  in  France 
and  elsewhere  for  the  same  purposes. 

PREPARATION  OF  LEATHER. 

In  general,  we  may  say  that  at  the  present  day  there 
are  the  same  three  classes  of  leather  as  in  the  days  of 
the  ancients,  according  to  whether  the  hide  is  treated 
with  oil  or  fatty  materials,  with  alum  or  other  metallic 
salts,  or  with  the  bark  of  trees  or  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances containing  the  compound  known  as  tannin. 

1.  Oil  Tanning. — This,  while  of  less  importance  than 
the  other  two  methods,  is  still  used  in  considerable 
quantities  for  lighter  and  cheaper  qualities  of  leather. 
The   process   most   commonly   used   is   often   called 
chamoising,  or  "  shamoying,"  because  it  is  used  prin- 
cipally for  the  production  of  "  chamois  leather "  or 
wash  leather.    The  hides  used  for  this  form  are  usually 
thin  and  light,  the  flesh  sides  of  split  sheepskins  being 
the  commonest,  and  the  resultant  leather  is  not  only 
soft  and  flexible  and  strong,  but  is  also  unaffected  by 
water.    For  this  reason  it  is  more  difficult  to  dye  than 
other  varieties. 

2.  Mineral  Tanning  or  Tawing. 

Alum. — For  thousands  of  years  it  has  been  known 
that  if  a  solution  of  alum  is  rubbed  or  soaked  into  a 
raw  hide  the  fibres  of  the  leather  become  changed  to  an 


144  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

insoluble  and  permanent  condition,  and  by  afterwards 
rubbing  and  rolling,  and  working  in  some  greasy  ma- 
terial, like  the  yolk  of  eggs,  a  useful  variety  of  leather 
can  be  produced.  The  alum  in  this  case  does  not  form 
a  permanent  compound  with  the  animal  fibres,  but  can 
be  washed  out  by  working  in  warm  water.  Chemists 
have  agreed,  therefore,  to  call  this  temporary  reaction 
by  the  name  "  tawing "  as  opposed  to  "  tanning " 
where  the  chemical  action  is  a  permanent  one.  The 
"  kid  "  leathers  used  for  gloves  are  commonly  made  by 
this  process. 

Chrome. — During  the  last  few  years  a  new  process  has 
been  introduced,  based  upon  the  use  of  chromium  salts, 
which  are  absorbed  by  the  hide  in  the  form  of  the 
yellow  or  orange-colored  salts,  chromate  and  bi- 
chromate of  sodium,  and  then  are  reduced  in  the  fibres 
to  a  green  compound  by  the  use  of  hydrosulphite  of 
sodium,  or  some  other  strong  but  harmless  reducing 
agent. 

This  chrome  leather  is  extremely  valuable,  and  is 
freely  used,  especially  for  the  "  uppers  "of  good  qual- 
ity in  the  boot  and  shoe  trade.  This  leather  is  very 
strong,  and  is  water-proof,  but  possesses  a  serious 
disadvantage  for  the  dyer,  in  that  when  it  is  once  dry 
it  can  never  be  again  wetted,  and  therefore  it  must  be 
dyed  fresh  from  the  tannery  wash  tanks,  or  not  at  all. 
3.  Vegetable,  or  Bark  Tanning.— At  some  very  early 
period  in  the  world's  history  it  was  discovered  that 
certain  vegetable  extracts,  possessing  in  general  a  pe- 
culiar "  puckery  "  taste,  also  possessed  valuable  prop- 
erties in  the  treatment  of  raw  hide.  This  process  was 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          145 

certainly  well  known  to  the  Romans,  for  Pliny  men- 
tions, as  tanning  materials,  the  three  great  sources  of 
tannin  to-day,  namely,  gall  nuts,  the  bark  of  trees,  and 
sumach.  These  and  many  other  vegetable  materials, 
used  for  tanning,  all  contain  a  peculiar  substance, 
known  as  "  tannin  "  or  tannic  acid,  which  gives  them 
their  useful  properties. 

The  tannins  from  different  plants  are  not  identical, 
although  closely  related  to  each  other.  They  all  have  a 
strong  astringent  taste,  and  dissolve  readily  in  water, 
forming  weak  acid  solutions.  They  make  dark-colored 
compounds  with  iron  salts,  and  convert  the  hide  tissue 
of  animals  into  a  tough,  insoluble,  and  comparatively 
indestructible  material  which,  when  loosened  and  soft- 
ened by  some  mechanical  action,  is  known  as  leather. 
Tannin. — Pure  tannin  can  best  be  obtained  from  gall 
nuts — small  excrescences  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  of 
certain  plants  caused  by  the  puncture  of  some  insect 
preparing  to  deposit  its  eggs  there.  The  best  varieties, 
called  Aleppo  galls,  come  from  Turkey  and  Austria, 
where  they  are  found  on  oak  trees,  and  contain  from 
60  to  70  per  cent  of  tannic  acid.  From  these  it  can  be 
extracted  in  a  very  pure  form,  and  it  comes  to  market 
as  an  extremely  light,  fine,  grey  or  light  tan-colored 
powder,  which  dissolves  in  very  little  water  to  an  al- 
most colorless  solution.  Tannin  in  this  form  is  largely 
used  for  dyeing,  especially  in  the  dyeing  of  cotton  or 
linen  goods  with  the  Basic  colors. 

For  tanning  purposes  it  is  customary  to  use  the  bark 
of  various  trees,  oak  bark  being  the  most  esteemed  in 
Europe  and,  in  this  country,  hemlock  bark  being  the 


146  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

most  used.  These  contain  from  12  to  15  per  cent  of 
tannin,  as  a  rule,  with  a  moderate  amount  of  brown 
coloring  matter.  Pine  bark  is  also  frequently  used, 
and  the  bark  of  fir,  spruce,  and  larch,  while,  in  Russia 
especially,  much  willow  bark  and  birch  bark  is  used 
for  light  grades,  the  so-called  Russia  leather. 

The  next  most  valuable  source  of  tannin  is  known  as 
sumach,  consisting  of  the  finely-ground  twigs  and 
leaves  of  several  species  of  that  plant.  The  American 
sumach  contains  more  tannin — 18  to  25  per  cent — than 
other  varieties,  but  it  is  less  valuable  than  the  Sicilian 
sumach,  which  contains  less  coloring  matter,  and  there- 
fore can  be  used  for  tanning  light  shades  of  leather. 
All  the  materials  can  be  used  in  the  tannery  either  di- 
rectly, or  in  the  form  of  previously  prepared  extracts. 
From  the  Far  East  come  some  very  important  sources 
of  tannin,  used  for  dyeing  as  well  as  for  leather- 
making,  in  the  form  of  dried  extracts  of  various  plants. 
One  of  these  is  Catechu  or  Cutch,  now  of  value  only 
for  its  tannin  contents,  but  in  former  years  used  as  a 
brown  dye-stuff  as  well.  A  similar  product,  known  as 
Gambier,  is  still  imported  on  a  large  scale  from  Singa- 
pore and  other  Eastern  ports.  It  contains  less  tannin 
than  Cutch,  but  less  coloring  matter  as  well.  It  is  used 
not  only  for  leather  but  for  black  silk  dyeing  with  log- 
wood. 

The  Tanning  Process. — Without  going  too  much  into 
detail,  the  conversion  of  raw  hide  into  leather  by 
means  of  tannin  is  a  very  lengthy  and  mechanical 
process.  The  hides  are  first  softened  by  soaking  in 
water,  and  then  are  dehaired,  usually  by  steeping  in  a 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          147 

bath  of  slaked  lime  until  the  hair  is  loosened  and  can 
be  scraped  off  with  a  blunt  knife. 

This  lime  must  then  be  extracted  by  steeping  in  an 
acid  bath,  preferably  containing  some  organic  acid  like 
lactic  or  acetic  acid ;  some  manufacturers,  for  the  sake 
of  cheapness,  use  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  this  pur- 
pose, with  the  invariable  result  of  making  the  leather 
brittle  and  rotten  when  it  is  fully  dried. 

After  the  acid  has  been  rinsed  off,  the  hides  are 
placed  in  the  tan  liquor,  made  either  by  dissolving  one 
of  the  extracts  in  water,  or  by  mixing  the  finely-ground 
bark  or  sumach  with  water  and  placing  the  hides  in  the 
mixture.  The  tanning  process  is  a  very  slow  one, 
especially  for  heavy  hides,  and  it  may  take  several 
months  before  the  tannin  penetrates  to  the  center  of 
the  goods.  When  that  time  has  come,  the  hides  are 
taken  out,  brushed  off,  rinsed  with  cold  water,  drained 
off  on  horses,  and  then  hung  up  in  a  drying  shed  to 
slowly  dry. 

When  in  the  proper  condition  they  are  thoroughly 
rolled  by  hand  or  machinery,  to  break  up  any  ad- 
hesions, and  to  make  the  leather  soft  and  flexible. 
Then  they  are  ready  to  be  finished,  are  dyed  to  the 
required  shade,  rubbed  down  and  polished  with  wax 
or  varnish,  grained  by  being  run  through  rollers  with 
engraved  patterns,  and  otherwise  prepared  for  the 
trade. 

DYEING   AND    STAINING   OF    LEATHER. 

General. — It  has  been  mentioned,  in  previous  chapters, 
that  animal  fibres  of  all  sorts,  such  as  wool,  silk, 


148  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

feathers,  etc.,  seem  to  possess  at  the  same  time  both 
acid  and  basic  properties,  and  therefore  they  combine 
readily  with  dyestuffs  belonging  to  the  Basic  and  also 
to  the  Acid  class.  This  at  once  distinguishes  animal 
fibres  from  vegetable  fibres  such  as  cotton,  linen,  and 
paper,  which,  being  practically  neutral  in  composition, 
will  not  combine  with  either  Basic  or  Acid  dyestuffs 
without  the  assistance  of  mordants. 

This  same  rule  applies  to  leather,  and  we  are  there- 
fore able  to  dye  leather  successfully  with  either  Acid 
or  Basic  dyestuffs,  using  a  dye-liquor  made  acid  with, 
preferably,  a  volatile  organic  acid  such  as  acetic  or 
formic  acid. 

Acids. — For  Basic  colors  acetic  acid  is  generally  used, 
as  being  cheaper  than  the  other,  and  quite  as  good  for 
dissolving  the  dyes  for  the  dye-bath.  For  Acid  colors 
it  is  generally  best  to  use  formic  acid,  for  acetic  acid 
in  many  cases  fails  to  liberate  the  color-acids  from  the 
dyes,  and  then  the  colors  fail  to  "  bite." 

Professional  leather  dyers,  for  the  sake  of  economy, 
often  use  a  little  sulphuric  acid  in  the  dye-bath,  a 
practice  which  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  short 
life  of  modern  leathers. 

With  other  animal  fibres,  such  as  wool  and  silk,  the 
Acid  colors  take  quite  as  readily  as  the  Basic;  but 
with  leather,  there  is  some  little  difference,  according 
to  the  way  in  which  the  leather  has  been  prepared. 

For  our  purposes  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  discuss 
the  dyeing  of  chrome  leather  or  of  chamois  leather. 
The  leather  almost  universally  employed  for  hand 
work  has  been  bark  tanned,  excepting  where  very 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          149 

white  goods  are  used,  of  rather  light  quality.  These 
are  generally  tawed  with  alum,  and  for  this  reason 
have  a  greater  affinity  for  the  Acid  colors  than  when 
the  fibres  have  already  been  fully  charged  with 
tannic  acid,  which  at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, acts  as  an  excellent  mordant  for  the  Basic 
colors. 

Dyestuffs. — Accordingly,  while  Acid  colors  may  be 
used,  they  do  not  act  nearly  so  readily  as  the  Basic 
colors.  For  this  reason,  except  for  special  shades  such 
as  a  clear  sky-blue  or  a  pure  scarlet,  which  can  hardly 
be  obtained  excepting  by  the  use  of  Acid  dyes,  or  where 
special  fastness  to  sunlight  is  required,  the  best  Basic 
colors,  such  as  Methylene  Blue,  Methylene  Heliotrope, 
Thioflavine  T  (for  yellow)  and  Safranine  (for  red) 
are  usually  employed.  For  black,  it  is  well  to  use  one 
of  the  many  Leather  blacks,  made  by  mixing  together 
powerful  Basic  dyes.  For  brown,  the  standard  leather 
color,  used  in  enormous  quantities  for  gloves  and  the 
like,  is  the  well-known  Bismarck  Brown,  or  for  more 
orange  shades,  the  closely  related  dyestuff,  Chrysoidine. 
And,  although  neither  of  these  colors  is  as  fast  to  light 
as  the  Basic  dyes  mentioned  above,  they  give  very 
satisfactory  results.  These  colors  should  be  dissolved 
in  water  acidified  with  a  little  acetic  acid. 

The  greatest  pains  must  be  taken  in  each  case  to 
see  that  the  color  is  all  in  solution,  and  that  no  specks 
of  undissolved  color  are  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  leather.  The  leather  must  be  very  care- 
fully and  thoroughly  moistened  by  soaking,  if  neces- 
sary over  night,  in  lukewarm  water  softened,  if  the 


150  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

surface  of  the  leather  seems  to  demand  it,  with  a  few 
drops  of  ammonia  water. 

Dyeing  Leather  and  Staining  Leather — As  regards 
the  application  of  the  color;  dyers  generally  make  a 
distinction  between  leather  that  is  dyed  and  leather 
that  is  stained. 

In  dyeing  leather  the  moistened  goods  are  placed 
in  a  tray  or  pan  (agateware  is  most  convenient  for 
small  pieces)  and  floated  backwards  and  forwards  in 
the  dye-liquor,  which  should  be  deep  enough  to  fully 
cover  them.  The  liquor  is  usually  about  lukewarm 
on  starting,  and  may  be  heated  very  gradually  and 
gently  to  about  120°  or  130°,  if  desired.  For  light 
shades,  however,  this  is  not  at  all  necessary,  and 
indeed  the  color,  as  a  rule,  penetrates  deeper  and  is 
laid  on  more  evenly  when  the  bath  is  kept  cold.  The 
leather  is  kept  in  the  dye-bath  until  the  desired  shade 
is  reached,  which  should  be  at  the  end  of  half  an 
hour  or  so. 

When  dyed  in  this  manner,  the  dyestuff  has  a 
chance  to  soak  into  the  leather,  and  so,  when  finished, 
the  color  is  not  so  liable  to  be  affected  by  rubbing  or 
by  wear.  The  leather  should  come  out  evenly  coated 
on  both  sides,  shaded  effects  if  desired  being  pro- 
duced later,  by  the  staining  process. 

Stained  Leather. — In  staining  leather,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  color  solution  is  applied  directly  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  damp — not  wet — goods  by  means  of  a 
brush  or  soft  sponge,  or  a  little  pad  of  cloth.  Ac- 
cordingly, no  matter  how  carefully  the  leather  has 
been  softened  and  moistened  beforehand,  the  color 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          151 

does  not  penetrate  far,  and  is  found  only  on  the  par- 
ticular surface  where  it  has  been  applied. 

For  flat,  even  shades,  the  dyeing  process  is  usually 
preferable,  but  by  staining,  it  is  possible  for  the 
craftsman  to  work  on  the  surface  of  the  leather,  as 
an  artist  does  on  paper  with  water  colors,  and  beauti- 
ful effects  can  be  produced.  Oil  paint  is  often  used 
for  decorating  leather,  and  when  applied  skilfully 
in  thin  layers,  the  effects  are  good.  But  staining 
with  dyestuffs  is  usually  preferable,  as  showing  more 
of  the  grain  of  the  leather,  and  being  more  trans- 
parent. 

The  staining  of  leather  may  either  be  done  free- 
hand, or  else  by  the  filling  in  of  set  designs,  marked 
out  previously  by  tooling  or  some  other  method;  or, 
as  will  be  discussed  later,  by  the  use  of  stencils.  In 
any  case  success  chiefly  depends  upon  the  condition 
of  the  surface  that  is  to  receive  the  dye.  The  sur- 
face of  the  leather  should  be  dampened,  thoroughly 
and  evenly,  so  that  the  dye  will  adhere,  and  even 
penetrate  a  little;  but  it  must  not  be  so  wet  that  the 
colors  will  run. 

To  get  this  exactly  right  requires  considerable 
practice.  As  a  rule,  the  leather  is,  first,  carefully  and 
evenly  soaked  in  water  or,  if  it  is  at  all  greasy,  in 
water  with  a  little  ammonia  in  it.  When  this  has  been 
thoroughly  done,  the  leather  is  taken  out  and  dried  off, 
first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  with  pieces 
of  cloth  and  then  later  with  blotting  paper.  After 
this  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  little  time  until  the 
exact  point  of  dryness  has  been  reached. 


I  $2  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

The  color  solution  should  be  applied  with  a  earners 
hair  brush  or  a  small,  soft  pad  of  cotton,  and  any 
excess  of  liquid  wiped  off,  or  soaked  up  with  blotting 
paper,  and  the  color  rubbed  in  with  the  fingers  or 
pad,  as  soon  as  possible. 

Acid  Dyes  for  Leather. — As  above  mentioned,  certain 
shades  are  hard  to  obtain  without  the  use  of  Acid 
colors.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  blue. 
For  the  lighter  and  brighter  shades  it  is  necessary  to 
use  one  of  the  Acid  blues  such  as  Cyanole  FF.  (Cas- 
sella),  or  Patent  Blue  (Metz).  These  are  applied 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  Basic  colors.  Some  of 
the  Acid  reds,  too,  will  be  found  valuable  for  certain 
shades  of  scarlet,  etc.,  that  can  hardly  be  reached  with 
Safranine.  Among  the  best  of  the  fast  Acid  colors 
for  leather  may  be  mentioned : 

Red.— Fast  Scarlet,  BXG,  Badische;  Biebrich  Acid 
Red,  2B,  Kalle,  and  Fast  Acid  Red,  M,  Metz. 

Yellow. — Tartrazine,  Badische;  Wool  Yellow,  lA, 
Kalle,  and  Fast  Acid  Yellow,  30,  Metz. 

Blue. — Wool  Fast  Blue,  BL,  Badische;  Nerocyan- 
nic  Blue,  B,  Kalle,  and  Fast  Acid  Blue,  BB,  Metz. 

When  using  these  Acid  dyes  side  by  side  with  the 
Basic  colors,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  latter,  as  a 
rule,  are  far  more  powerful,  and  color  the  leather 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  Acid  dyes.  Accordingly 
for  staining  leather  the  Basic  dyes  are  the  most  satis- 
factory. On  the  other  hand  in  dyeing  leather,  where 
the  dye-liquor  is  allowed  to  act  longer  on  the  goods, 
the  Acid  colors  are  more  valuable,  not  only  because 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing          153 

they  are  fast  to  light,  but  also  because  they  will 
penetrate  more  deeply  and  more  evenly. 
Finishing  Leather — After  coloring  the  leather  it  is 
necessary  to  finish  it  carefully,  to  get  a  smooth  surface 
and  to  protect  it  from  injury  by  rubbing  or 
moisture.  Some  workers  simply  let  the  leather  dry 
and  then  rub  down  the  surface  (without  using  any 
wax  or  oil)  with  the  finger  or  the  palm  of  the  hands. 
Usually  the  grain  or  hair  side  of  the  leather  is  rubbed 
down  with  a  little  wax,  the  white  or  yellow  wax,  used 
largely  as  a  finishing  polish  for  tan  shoes,  being  fre- 
quently employed  for  this  purpose.  It  can  be  readily 
obtained  from  almost  any  good  shoe  store  or,  if  de- 
sired, can  be  made  by  mixing  together  equal  quan- 
tities of  beeswax  and  carnauba  wax  in  a  molten  con- 
dition, and  thinning  the  mixture  with  a  little  tur- 
pentine. 

A  recipe  used  with  success  by  many  leather  workers 
calls  for  a  mixture  of  beeswax,  turpentine,  and  neats- 
foot  oil.  The  wax  is  carefully  melted,  mixed  with  a 
small  amount  of  turpentine,  and  then  enough  oil  is 
stirred  in  to  make  it  soft.  When  used  upon  embossed 
or  figured  leather  this  wax  is  never  applied  directly, 
but  is  placed  inside  a  little  bag  of  soft  muslin,  and 
rubbed  on  and  into  the  leather  with  a  circular  motion 
— the  palm  of  the  hand  being  often  used  to  finish  the 
waxed  surface. 

Bronze  Effects. — An  interesting  point  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  the  Basic  dyes,  and  some  of  the  Acid 
dyes,  too,  for  staining  leather  is  that,  when  applied 
in  a  strong  solution,  as  is  very  likely  to  be  the  case 


154  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

when  one  is  trying  to  get  dark  shades  with  an  appli- 
cation of  the  brush  or  pad,  they  quite  frequently,  on 
drying,  show  a  very  marked  metallic  lustre.  This  is 
due  to  the  formation  of  minute,  bright-colored  crys- 
tals, which  reflect  the  light,  thus  imparting  to  the 
fabric  colors  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  shade 
produced  by  the  dyestuff  itself.  Thus,  Cyanole  FF, 
Cassella,  when  dissolved,  or  when  dyed  on  leather 
or  any  other  material,  gives  a  rather  greenish  shade 
of  blue.  But  it  gives  a  very  brilliant  old  gold  effect, 
almost  as  bright  as  gold  leaf,  when  applied  in  a  strong 
solution  and  allowed  to  dry  quickly. 

When  this  effect  is  not  desired  it  can  be  avoided 
by  building  up  the  dark  shades  by  successive  applica- 
tions of  weak  solution,  and  by  rubbing  down  the  little 
crystals  with,  if  necessary,  a  little  moisture,  when- 
ever they  appear  to  be  forming. 

In  some  cases,  however,  this  bronzing  property  is 
of  some  value,  and  enables  the  skilful  craftsman  to 
obtain  interesting  and  effective  results  with  a  mini- 
mum of  trouble  and  expense.  By  painting  on  a  strong 
solution  of  dyestuff,  and  letting  it  dry  quickly,  the 
bronze  effect  will  be  produced,  and  then  by  rubbing 
in  portions,  the  true  coloring  of  the  dyestuff  will  be 
brought  out  in  strong  contrast  to  the  crystal-covered 
surface.  Unfortunately,  these  bronze  effects  are  not 
fast  to  either  rubbing  or  moisture,  and  even  dry  rub- 
bing will  break  down  the  crystals,  while  rubbing  with 
a  damp  cloth  or  a  moist  finger  will  dissolve  the  color 
off  in  blotches.  To  render  this  bronze  effect  more 
durable,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  regular  bronze 


Leather  and  Leather  Dyeing 

lacquer,  by  adding  varnish  or  gum  like  orange  shellac 
or  gum  benzoin  to  a  strong  alcoholic  solution  of  a 
Basic  dye.  The  bronze  varnish  thus  produced  will, 
when  dry,  stand  light  finishing  with  wax  in  the  usual 
way.  The  addition  of  a  little  benzoic  acid  to  the 
solution  increases  the  lustre  of  the  crystals. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SILK— I 

SO  far  as  we  can  tell,  silk  was  first  discovered  and 
manufactured  in  China  about  1700  B.C.,  a  date 
corresponding  in  Biblical  history  to  the  time 
of  the  patriarch  Joseph.  From  China  it  was  exported 
to  the  great  and  wealthy  empire  of  Persia,  and  from 
there  was  first  brought  into  Europe  by  Alexander  the 
Great  after  his  defeat  of  the  Persian  king.  Its  origin, 
although  known  and  described  by  Aristotle,  was  for 
several  hundred  years  a  mystery.  During  the  Roman 
Empire,  silken  garments,  woven  in  Europe,  from  Chi- 
nese silk  imported  by  way  of  Persia,  were  important 
and  very  highly  prized  articles  of  luxury. 

About  555  A.D.,  while  commerce  with  Persia  was 
interrupted  by  warfare,  two  monks  in  the  pay  of  the 
Emperor  Justinian  smuggled  eggs  of  the  silkworm 
and  seeds  of  mulberry  trees  from  China  to  Constanti- 
nople. This  was  the  origin  of  the  European  silk  in- 
dustry. It  spread  rapidly  to  the  various  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  by  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  firmly  established  not  only  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  but  also  in  France. 

Efforts  were  made  to  introduce  it,  at  this  time,  into 
England,  but  without  success.  In  1622  King  James  I 

156 


Silk— I  157 

started  the  industry,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  colony 
of  Virginia  in  this  country.  Since  that  time  numerous 
attempts  have  been  made  to  develop  the  American 
silkworm  industry,  but  with  very  little  success,  owing 
to  the  large  amount  of  hand  labor  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  material. 

At  the  present  time  the  very  finest  raw  silk  in  the 
world  is  produced  in  the  south  of  France,  and  next 
to  that  come  certain  brands  of  Italian  silk.  The  Jap- 
anese silk  is  more  variable  in  quality,  although  stead- 
ily improving,  while  the  Chinese  silk,  as  a  rule,  is  less 
satisfactory  and  more  apt  to  be  light  and  fluffy. 

With  regard  to  the  consumption,  it  was  estimated 
that  in  1907  Europe  used  some  twenty-five  million 
pounds,  and  the  United  States  fifteen  million  pounds 
of  raw  silk,  which,  at  an  average  price  of  nearly  $5.50 
per  pound,  amounted  to  over  two  hundred  and  eigh- 
teen million  dollars. 

Origin  and  Varieties  of  Silk — Silk  has  been  defined  as 
a  "  smooth,  lustrous,  elastic  fibre  of  small  diameter  and 
of  animal  origin."  As  is  well  known,  ordinary  com- 
mercial silk  is  secreted  or  "  spun  "  by  the  silkworm, 
the  caterpillar  form  of  a  moth  known  as  Bombyx 
Mori,  the  moth  of  the  mulberry  tree.  These  silk- 
worms .have  been  cultivated  for  thousands  of  years, 
but  there  exist  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  notably 
in  India  and  Japan,  wild  or  uncultivated  silkworms, 
derived  from  nearly  related,  but  not  identical,  fami- 
lies of  moths,  and  whose  silk  is  collected  in  the  forests 
by  the  natives,  forming  what  is  known  in  commerce 
as  wild  or  tussah  silk. 


158  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Of  course,  the  silk  from  silkworms,  cultivated  and 
wild,  is  the  only  one  yet  produced  on  a  commercial 
sfcale.  But  silk  can  also  be  obtained  from  other  ani- 
mals, notably  from  spiders  and  from  a  peculiar  shell- 
fish, the  pinna,  found  in  the  waters  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

Silk  from  the  silkworm  can  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  according  to  whether  the  silkworms  are  the 
cultivated  or  the  wild  varieties.  In  each  case  the  silk 
is  produced  by  the  caterpillar  spinning  a  covering  or 
shroud,  the  so-called  cocoon,  around  itself  to  pro- 
tect it  when  in  the  form  of  the  chrysalis  or  pupa, 
awaiting  its  transformation  into  the  moth. 

The  ordinary  or  cultivated  silk  of  commerce  comes 
from  worms  fed  almost  exclusively  upon  the  leaves  of 
the  white  mulberry  tree,  and  cannot  be  produced  suc- 
cessfully without  that  particular  plant.  The  some- 
what similar  worms  that  produce  the  wild  or  tussah 
silks  live  upon  the  leaves  of  the  oak,  elm,  ailanthus, 
castor  oil  plant,  and  others.  While  the  two  varieties 
resemble  each  other  greatly  in  their  chemical  prop- 
erties, they  can  always  be  distinguished,  because  culti- 
vated silk  is  much  more  lustrous  than  the  other,  but  is 
decidedly  less  strong. 

Tussah  Silk,  Pongee,  'Shantung. — The  tussah  silks, 
when  woven,  are  commonly  known  under  the  general 
name  of  pongee.  Of  late  years  this  name  has  been 
applied  to  imitation  goods  possessing  the  characteristic 
dull  color,  and  even  the  feel  of  the  real  article,  but  far 
less  strong.  These  are  generally  made  out  of  spun  silk, 
derived  from  "  Shappe,"  i.e.,  the  by-products  of  the 


Silk— I  159 

silk  industry,  spoilt  cocoons,  waste  from  the  spinning 
machines  and  the  dyehouses,  and  the  like — silk,  to  be 
sure,  but  silk  of  very  inferior  quality.  Accordingly,  it 
is  now  customary  to  call  real  pongee  by  the  name 
Shantung,  after  the  Chinese  province  from  which  much 
of  the  wild  silk  is  brought. 

Shantung,  or  true  pongee,  can  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  the  imitation  by  examination  of  the 
threads,  both  warp  and  filling.  These  should  be  very 
long,  and  loosely  spun  or  rather  "  thrown,"  whereas 
the  imitation  threads  are  spun  together  tightly,  from 
fibres  of  many  different  lengths,  generally  quite  short. 
Preparing  Silk  for  Dyeing. 

Reeling. — All  silk,  whether  cultivated  or  wild,  comes 
originally  from  the  cocoons,  which  are,  as  a  rule,  each 
formed  out  of  a  continuous  strand  or  thread  woven  by 
the  silkworm  round  and  round  its  own  body  before  it 
passes  into  the  chrysalis  state.  These  cocoons  are  col- 
lected, carefully  dried  to  kill  the  quiescent  animal  in- 
side, and  then,  in  due  course  of  time,  they  are  placed  in 
basins  of  warm  water  which  softens  the  gum  which 
binds  the  cocoon  threads  together,  and  the  separate  fine 
threads  from  several  cocoons  are  picked  up  by  brush- 
ing, and  are  combined  into  one  which  is  reeled  off  on 
machines.  The  silk  thus  obtained  is  made  up  into 
hanks  and  bundles,  and  constitutes  the  raw  silk  of  com- 
merce. 

Raw  Silk. — The  raw  silk  is  very  different  in  appear- 
ance and  texture  to  the  finished  silk  that  we  are  ac- 
customed to.  It  is  without  lustre,  white,  yellow,  or 
even,  in  the  case  of  some  Italian  silks,  orange  in  color, 


160  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

and  quite  stiff  when  handled.  These  qualities  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  from  25  to  35  per  cent  of  gum, 
which  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  softened  by  hot 
water  and  dissolves  readily  in  a  hot  soap  bath. 
Throwing. — The  threads  of  this  raw  silk  are  far  too 
fine  and  delicate  to  be  fit  for  the  weaving  processes  or 
even  for  dyeing.  So  they  are  combined  into  coarser 
and  stronger  threads  by  being  "  thrown,"  a  process 
equivalent  to  the  spinning  process  of  cotton,  linen  or 
wool.  In  throwing,  the  raw  silk  fibres  are  again  soft- 
ened in  hot  water,  and  are  loosely  spun  or  twisted 
together  while  still  sticky.  Three,  four,  or  five  threads 
of  raw  silk  are  usually  combined  to  form  one  strand 
of  thrown  silk,  varying,  of  course,  with  the  quality  of 
the  original  silk  and  the  objects  for  which  the  thrown 
silk  is  to  be  used,  when  woven.  For  instance,  silk 
used  for  filling — "  tram,"  as  it  is  called  in  the  trade — 
is  usually  thicker  and  softer,  and  less  strong  than  the 
warp,  or  "  organzine/'  and  therefore  is  usually  built 
up,  by  the  "  throwster,"  from  many  threads  of  less 
valuable  raw  silk,  loosely  twisted,  while  the  organ- 
zine, used  for  warp,  is  generally  of  the  best  and 
strongest  available  material,  thrown  in  finer  strands 
out  of  fewer  threads  of  raw  silk,  twisted  more  tightly. 
It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  skein  silk  is 
thrown  from  very  long  continuous  threads  of  raw 
silk,  full  of  gum,  whereas  spun  silk,  which  is  being 
used  more  and  more  every  year,  is  made  from  short 
lengths  of  waste  and  scrap  silk,  held  together  not  by 
gum,  but  by  tight  twisting  and  spinning,  just  like  cot- 
ton or  linen. 


Silk— I  161 

Stripping  or  Degumming. — This  thrown  silk  must 
then  be  prepared  for  the  dyeing  by  getting  rid  of  the 
gum,  which  not  only  makes  the  silk  stiff  and  destroys 
its  lustre,  but  which  also  would  interfere  with  the 
smooth,  even  dyeing  of  the  fibres  themselves.  For  this 
purpose  the  silk,  in  skeins,  is  thoroughly  washed,  or 
"  stripped,"  by  soaking  in  two  or  three  successive  baths 
of  hot,  strong,  neutral  soap  solutions.  In  the  dye- 
houses  Castile  (olive  oil)  soap  is  invariably  used  for 
this  purpose,  and,  while  made  of  cheap  grades  of  olive 
oil,  it  is  always,  in  good  dyehouses,  of  excellent  quality, 
for  the  presence  of  even  minute  amounts  of  free  alkali 
in  these  baths  is  liable  to  greatly  injure  and  "  tender  " 
the  silk. 

Boiled-off  Liquor. — The  soap  solution  from  these 
stripping  baths  is  not  thrown  away  in  the  dyehouses, 
but  is  carefully  stored  as  a  valuable  reagent.  Under 
the  name  of  "  boiled-off  liquor "  it  is  almost  ex- 
clusively used,  by  the  dyers,  for  color  dyeing.  It  is 
not  often  used  in  black  dyeing,  and  therefore,  in  a 
dyehouse,  the  presence  of  a  large  and  well-patronized 
black  department  is  considered  of  great  importance  as 
providing  the  color  dyer  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
boiled-off  liquor. 

The  stripped  or  degummed  silk  is  now  ready  for 
weaving  directly,  the  resulting  white  cloth  being  some- 
times finished  and  sold  as  such,  and  sometimes  "  dyed 
in  the  piece."  In  most  cases,  however,  the  stripped 
silk  is  weighted,  dyed,  and  finished  "  in  the  skeins," 
before  weaving. 
Piece  Dyeing. — In  dyeing  by  the  piece,  the  stripped 


1 62  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

silk  is  passed  through  a  weak  acid  bath,  usually  acetic, 
and  then  woven  into  goods  of  the  desired  quality. 
These  goods  are  then  dyed  in  the  piece  by  being  run 
through  the  dye-bath  until  they  are  of  the  proper  shade. 
The  dye-bath  (for  colors)  is  made  by  stirring  the 
proper  quantity  of  Acid  dyestuffs  into  a  hot  bath  of 
boiled-off  liquor  (the  bath  in  which  the  silk  has  been 
stripped),  which  is  faintly  acidified,  or  "broken,"  as 
the  technical  phrase  goes,  by  the  addition  of  some  sul- 
phuric acid.  This  boiled-off  liquor  has  the  property  of 
laying  the  dyes  on  the  silk  evenly  and  thoroughly,  and 
h  better  for  that  purpose  than  any  other  medium.  For 
amateur  work,  or  where  boiled-off  liquor  cannot  be 
obtained,  very  fair  results  can  be  obtained  with  a 
strong  bath  of  olive  oil  soap  (Castile  or  Marseilles), 
"  broken  "  with  weak  acid,  generally  dilute  sulphuric 
acid. 

The  term  "  breaking "  the  soap  bath  is  very  sig- 
nificant. The  acid  should  be  added  drop  by  drop  to 
the  frothing  soap  bath  until  the  bubbles  disappear  and 
a  thin  iridescent  film  of  fatty  acid  rises  to  the  top  of 
the  liquid. 

After  the  piece  goods  are  brought  to  the  proper 
shade,  they  are  finished,  usually  by  carefully  rinsing 
in  water  to  take  away  all  traces  of  free  acid,  then  by 
passing  through  a  cold  soap  bath,  often  with  a  little 
olive  oil  emulsified  in  it,  to  increase  the  lustre;  finally, 
through  a  bath  of  weak  organic  acid,  like  acetic  acid, 
to  develop  the  so-called  "  scroop  "  or  "  feel "  of  the 
silk.  When  silk  is  washed  in  soap,  or  is  dipped  in 
even  a  weak  bath  of  alkali,  it  becomes  soft  and  clammy 


Silk— I  163 

to  the  touch,  and  has  no  "  life  "  or  "  snap  "  to  it  when 
dry.  The  passage  through  a  bath  of  weak  acid  de- 
velops the  characteristic  stiffness  of  the  silk  fibre,  and 
causes  it  to  give  its  peculiar  rustling  sound  when 
pressed. 

Skein  Dyeing. — When  weighting  or  adulteration  is  not 
employed,  i.e.,  in  the  so-called  "  pure  dye  "  process,  the 
dyeing  of  skein  silk  resembles  the  piece  dyeing  de- 
scribed. The  degummed  silk  is  immersed  in  a  dye- 
bath  containing  the  dyestuffs  (Acid  colors)  dissolved 
in  boiled-off  liquor,  broken  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
The  bath  is  heated  nearly  to  the  boiling  point,  and  the 
silk  turned  in  it  until  the  desired  shade  is  produced.  It 
is  then  taken  out,  washed  thoroughly  in  water  to  re- 
move the  last  traces  of  acid,  and  then  brightened  by 
passing  through  a  soap  bath  with  some  oil,  and  later 
through  a  bath  of  acetic  acid  to  develop  the  "  scroop." 
Drying. — An  important  part  of  the  process  is  the  final 
drying  and  finishing.  The  drying  should  be  done 
slowly  and  carefully,  and  not  proceed  too  far,  or  the 
silk  will  be  brittle.  As  is  well  known  to  dyers,  silk 
has  the  power  of  absorbing  25$  or  30$  of  its  weight 
of  water  without  becoming  perceptibly  damp  to  the 
hand,  and  this  moisture,  when  not  carried  too  far,  is 
of  actual  benefit  to  the  material,  making  it  stronger 
and  more  elastic.  This  property  is  often  made  use 
of  by  the  honest  (  ?)  dyer  when,  in  case  some  of  the 
silk  in  a  lot  has  been  spoiled  by  accident  or  careless- 
ness, he  makes  up  the  difference  in  weight  by  the  lib- 
eral use  of  the  watering  pot. 
Finishing. — This  process  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult 


164  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

and  technical  of  all,  for  the  value  of  the  finished  prod- 
uct depends  very  largely  on  it,  and  it  is  almost  im- 
possible for  an  amateur  to  accomplish  it.  The  skeins, 
after  drying,  are  hung  on  a  heavy  polished  wooden 
bar  and,  with  a  smooth  wooden  stick,  are  shaken  out, 
straightened,  pulled,  twisted,  and  worked  until  the 
fibres  are  all  parallel,  the  kinks  taken  out,  any  weak 
or  injured  portion  cut  out,  and  the  whole  skein  has 
acquired  the  proper  amount  of  lustre. 

Sometimes,  for  specially  brilliant  fabrics,  the  skeins 
are  "  lustred "  by  machinery ;  this  is  the  so-called 
"  metallic  lustring  "  when  the  silk,  generally  enveloped 
in  steam  so  as  to  be  both  hot  and  damp,  is  pulled  out 
between  two  steel  arms  until  it  has  been  stretched  a 
considerable  percentage  of  its  original  length.  This 
undoubtedly  lessens  the  strength  of  the  fibre  consid- 
erably and  diminishes  its  elasticity,  but  under  this 
strain  each  fibre  is  stretched  out  perfectly  smooth  and 
thus  becomes  much  more  brilliant  and  lustrous. 
Dyeing  Wild  Silks — It  has  been  found  difficult  to 
handle  satisfactorily  the  different  sorts  of  wild  silks  in 
the  factory.  The  bleaching  of  them  has  been  very 
troublesome,  although  of  late  years  the  problem  has 
been  solved  pretty  well.  And  the  ordinary  process 
for  dyeing  silk  with  Acid  dyes  in  a  broken  soap,  or 
boiled-off  liquor,  bath  is,  for  full  deep  shades  at  any 
rate,  not  always  satisfactory.  In  consequence  most 
of  the  genuine  pongee  or  Shantung  cloth  is  sold  in 
the  natural  unbleached  color,  a  pleasant  shade  of  tan, 
or  else  in  light  shades. 

Perhaps  the  best  results  in  dyeing  pongee  silk  full, 


Silk— I  165 

deep,  even  shades  are  obtained  by  mordanting  the 
material  with  tannin  and  tartar  emetic,  just  as  cotton 
is  mordanted  before  dyeing  it  with  Basic  colors,  and 
then  using  in  the  dye-bath  one  or  the  other  of  the 
so-called  "  Janus  "  colors, — a  group  of  colors  on  the 
border  line  between  Basic  and  Acid,  of  which  the  best 
are  Janus  Yellow  G,  Janus  Yellow  R,  Janus  Red  B, 
and  Janus  Black  i  (Metz). 

This  process,  however,  is  too  complicated  for  the 
unprofessional  dyer  to  use  with  much  success. 

For  all  but  the  very  full  shades  the  craftsman  is 
advised  to  use  the  Acid  colors,  as,  for  instance,  some 
of  the  selected  colors  of  the  different  houses,  listed 
in  Chapter  VII,  in  a  bath  acidified  with  acetic  acid, 
and  without  the  use  of  soap. 

For  dark  dull  shades  the  Sulphur  colors  can  be  used, 
especially  if  some  care  is  taken  to  reduce  the  alkalin- 
ity of  the  bath  by  neutralizing  or  nearly  neutralizing 
the  sodium  sulphide  with  a  little  acid  sodium  sulphite. 
If  the  desired  shade  is  so  dark  as  to  necessitate  heat- 
ing and  dye-bath,  it  is  also  advisable  to  add  a  little 
gelatin. 

For  full  shades  of  rather  brighter  quality  the  Vat 
dyes  may  be  employed,  also  with  precautions  against 
the  tendering  action  of  the  caustic  alkali  upon  the 
fibre. 

Before,  however,  starting  in  to  dye  a  piece  of 
pongee  on  the  assumption  that  it  is  made  from  tussah 
silk,  it  is  very  advisable  to  examine  it  carefully,  pick- 
ing out  the  individual  threads  and  untwisting  them, 
and  to  make  a  few  dyeing  tests  upon  small  samples. 


1 66  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

For  a  large  proportion  of  so-called  pongee,  which  in 
color,  lustre,  feel,  and  general  appearance  resembles 
the  genuine  Shantung  very  closely,  is  simply  made 
from  spun  or  waste  silk,  and  can  be  dyed  like  ordinary 
silk. 

Acid  Dyes,  to  be  used  on  Silk. — Any  of  the  dye- 
stuffs  mentioned  in  the  lists  on  page  127,  as  suitable 
for  wool,  can  be  used  successfully  for  silk  dyeing. 
These  colors  have  all  been  selected  as  unusually  fast 
to  light  and,  in  this  respect,  are  to  be  classified  as 
"practically  all  of  the  first  class,"  i.e.,  as  absolutely 
satisfactory  against  the  action  of  sunlight. 

But,  for  a  valuable  and  comparatively  fragile  ma- 
terial like  silk,  it  is  quite  allowable  to  use  colors  for 
special  shades  which  are  less  fast  to  sunlight,  if  they 
possess  other  valuable  qualities.  Such,  for  instance, 
are  the  two  red  dyestuffs,  Fast  Acid  Eosine  G 
(Mete)  and  Fast  Acid  Phloxine  (Mete),  which 
belong  to  the  group  of  so-called  Eosine  or  Fluorescein 
dyestuffs  most  of  which,  while  very  beautiful,  are  ex- 
tremely fugitive.  These  two  dyes,  which  give  shades 
of  pink  and  red  with  yellow  and  blue  fluorescence,  re- 
spectively, are  considerably  more  fast  than  the  rest  of 
their  group,  and  will  rank  in  the  third  class,  if  not  at 
the  foot  of  the  second  class,  as  regards  light-fastness. 

With  regard  to  fastness  to  washing,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  these  Acid  dyes  are  not  fast  at  all, 
when  dyed  on  silk  in  a  broken  soap  bath.  They  may 
stand  very  light  washing  in  a  cold  soap  bath,  but  in 
boiling  soapsuds  will  strip  completely.  This  is  impor- 
tant for  the  amateur,  and  indeed,  for  the  professional 


Silk— I  167 

dyer,  for  whom  a  dyed  silk,  either  skein  or  in  the 
piece,  has  come  out  unsatisfactorily — uneven  or 
spotted,  or  too  dark  in  shade — for  it  is  possible,  if 
the  silk  is  of  good  quality,  to  clean  off  the  color  com- 
pletely by  boiling  soapsuds,  without  injuring  the 
goods. 

If  the  trouble  is  unevenness,  while  the  shade  is  sat- 
isfactory, the  color  can  be  dissolved  off  in  the  boiling 
soap  bath  and  then,  on  breaking  the  bath  with  a  little 
acid,  the  same  dye  can  be  laid  right  on  again,  it  is 
to  be  hoped  this  time  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The 
question  of  dyeing  silk  fast  to  washing,  and  also  of 
dyeing  silk  black,  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  next 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SILK— II 

BLACK  DYEING  OF  SILK.      WEIGHTING  AND  ADULTERA- 
TION OF  SILK.      DYEING  SILK  WITH  COLORS 
FAST  TO  WASHING 

THE  dyeing  process  described  in  the  last  chap- 
ter, while  well  suited  for  dyeing  silk  bright  and 
lustrous  colors,  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  dye- 
ing it  black.  To  be  sure,  there  are  several  good  fast 
acid  blacks,  such  as  Silk  Patent  Black,  2R,  Kalle,  or 
Neutral  Wool  Black,  B,  Cassella,,  or  Cashmere  Black, 
3BN,  Elberfeld,  or  Amido  Black,  4024,  Metz,  which, 
dyed  in  full  shades  in  a  broken  bath  of  soap  or 
boiled-off  liquor,  will  give  fairly  good  results.  But 
the  best  of  these  are  not  always  quite  satisfactory, 
the  resulting  color  generally  showing  a  tendency  to 
be  a  deep  full  grey  rather  than  a  perfectly  true  lus- 
trous black. 

Salt  Colors. — Silk  may  also  be  dyed  black  with  some 
of  the  good  Salt  colors — but  unless  the  dyer  takes 
the  trouble  to  after-treat  the  goods  by  the  troublesome 
process  of  diazotizing  and  developing,  the  results  are 
no  better,  if  indeed  as  good  as  those  resulting  from  the 
Acid  blacks  mentioned  above. 

168 


Silk— II  169 

Sulphur  Colors. — These  have  very  often  been  tried  on 
silk  without  much  success,  because  for  dark  colors  like 
blacks,  it  is  necessary  to  boil  the  goods  in  the  dye- 
liquor  for  some  time  and  to  have  the  latter  very  con- 
centrated. Unfortunately  the  sodium  sulphide,  neces- 
sary for  dissolving  the  sulphur  dyes,  is  a  powerful 
alkali,  and  hence  readily  attacks  an  animal  fibre,  like 
silk.  It  is  possible,  however,  by  the  abundant  use  of 
glucose  (Karo  syrup,  etc.)  to  greatly  protect  the  silk 
from  this  tendering  action.  It  is  also  possible  for  a 
dyer  fairly  well  trained  in  chemistry,  to  very  carefully 
neutralize  the  dye-bath  by  the  cautious  addition  of 
acid  sodium  sulphite,  until  the  dye-liquor  is  no 
longer  alkaline  and  yet  the  dyestuff  is  not  precipi- 
tated. This  process,  however,  is  hardly  fitted  for  an 
amateur,  and  has  not  proved  very  successful  even 
among  the  professionals. 

Logwood  Blacks. — Nearly  all  professional  dyers  con- 
tinue to  use  the  old  vegetable  dyestuff,  logwood,  about 
which  some  information  was  given  in  the  first  chapter. 
To  dye  with  this  it  is  customary  to  use  one  of  the 
many  good  logwood  extracts  on  the  market.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  in  the  proper  mordanting  of  the 
silk  before  it  goes  into  the  bath.  For  this  purpose  the 
silk  is  impregnated  first  with  iron  salts,  and  later  with 
tannin,  and  in  some  processes,  with  salts  of  chromium 
or  of  tin,  before  entering  the  logwood  bath.  In  all 
cases,  therefore,  silk  dyed  black  with  logwood  con- 
tains a  certain  amount,  say  15$  to  20$  of  its  weight, 
or  2-3  ounces  to  the  pound,  of  foreign  ingredients. 
When  carefully  done  this  does  not  injure  the  material 


170  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

at  all,  and  the  "  pure  dyed  "  logwood  blacks  are  per- 
fectly satisfactory  both  for  shade,  lustre,  and  dura- 
bility. 

WEIGHTING  OF  SILK 

This  moderate  increase  of  weight,  however,  which 
is  hardly  enough  to  replace  the  weight  of  the  gum 
lost  in  the  stripping  process,  was  far  from  satisfying 
the  demands  of  the  manufacturer  for  a  cheaper  raw 
material.  And  accordingly  both  dyer  and  dyeing 
chemist  have  exhausted  all  their  energies  and  skill  in 
trying  to  increase  this  percentage  of  cheap  foreign 
matter  in  the  finished  silk,  to  the  utmost  limit  of  what 
the  market  will  stand. 

The  first  efforts  in  this  direction  were  based  upon 
the  saving  of  some  or,  indeed,  nearly  all,  of  the  gum 
which  is  wasted  in  the  stripping  or  degumming  process 
previously  described.  This  gum,  which  amounts  to 
from  20  to  35  per  cent  of  the  raw  silk,  makes  the  silk 
stiff  in  texture  and  dull  in  color  and  more  difficult  to 
dye.  Accordingly,  in  former  years,  it  was  invariably 
washed  out  of  the  silk  with  the  greatest  care  before 
any  attempt  was  made  to  dye  it.  But  by  modifying  the 
dyeing,  and  especially  the  finishing  process,  it  was 
found  possible  to  produce  the  so-called  "  souples  " — 
i.e.,  silks  with  little  or  no  lustre,  but  with  the  char- 
acteristic "  scroop  "  or  "  feel  " — capable  of  replacing 
bright  silk  as  a  filling  in  many  fabrics  and  yet  contain- 
ing almost  all  the  natural  gum  left  in  the  fibre. 

The  black  silks  were  then  attacked  and  an  elaborate 
system  of  mordanting  was  introduced  before  the  dye- 


Silk— II  171 

ing  proper  began.  For  instance,  the  silk  can  be  steeped 
alternately  in  one  solution  after  another,  first  of  iron 
salts  and  then  of  ferrocyanide  of  potash,  thus  forming 
Prussian  blue  in  the  fibre.  Then  the  excess  of  iron  can 
be  converted  by  immersion  in  tannin  solutions,  such 
as  Gambier  or  Cutch,  into  black  tannate  of  iron,  or  ink, 
and  finally,  after  perhaps  a  light  bath  in  chromium 
salts,  the  real  black  color  is  brought  out  by  boiling  in 
logwood  extract.  The  silk  is  then  brightened  by  boil- 
ing with  good  neutral  Castile  soap,  is  shaded,  if  neces- 
sary, by  dyeing  with  either  an  Acid  or  Basic  dye  in  a 
weak  bath,  and,  after  drying  and  finishing,  the  finished 
product  may  easily  weigh  two  or  even  three  times  as 
much  as  the  original  raw  silk,  and  still  retain  its 
strength,  lustre,  and  elasticity. 

Tin  Weighting. — The  weighting  of  colored  and  bright 
silks  did  not  proceed  so  rapidly,  and  it  was  not  much 
more  than  ten  years  ago  that,  by  accident,  some  French 
dyers  discovered  that  by  immersion  in  a  strong  bath  of 
tin  chloride  (stannic  chloride  acidified  with  some 
hydrochloric  acid)  the  silk  fibre  would  absorb  a  large 
percentage  of  tin  salts  without  necessarily  losing  lustre, 
dyeing  capacity,  or  even  strength.  This  at  first  was 
kept  a  secret,  but  its  use  gradually  spread,  until  now 
it  is  a  very  poor  silk  dyer  who  cannot  weight  his  silk 
100  or  150  per  cent  without  spoiling  its  immediate 
commercial  value. 

Without  going  into  unnecessary  details,  the  process 
is  somewhat  as  follows:  The  silk,  after  being  de- 
gummed  and  thoroughly  washed  free  of  soap,  is 
plunged  into  a  bath  of  tin  chloride  and  kept  there  for 


172  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

some  hours.  It  is  then  taken  out  and  the  loose  tin 
salts  are  washed  off  in  a  tank  of  water  (technically 
called  a  box),  or  in  a  washing  machine.  To  further 
"  set "  the  tin,  the  silk  is  then  placed  for  a  short  time 
in  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  and  again  washed 
thoroughly.  It  has  now  gained  from  15  to  25  per  cent 
of  its  original  weight  (2^  to  4  ounces  to  the  pound 
of  raw  silk). 

If  further  weighting  is  desired,  this  treatment,  first 
in  tin  chloride  and  then  in  phosphate  of  soda,  can  be 
repeated  three  or  four  up  to  five  or  even  six  times, 
increasing  the  weight  with  each  immersion.  Then  a 
bath  is  usually  given  of  silicate  of  soda,  which  adds  a 
little  weight,  J^  to  ^4  of  an  ounce,  and,  it  is  claimed, 
benefits  the  lustre  and  strength  of  the  goods.  Then, 
after  a  final  washing,  the  silk  is  ready  for  the  dye-bath. 

The  weighted  goods  are  dyed,  dried,  and  finished 
about  the  same  as  with  the  "  pure  dye  "  process,  and 
the  proud  dyer  can  rejoice  at  returning  to  the  honest 
manufacturer  from  150  to  250  pounds  of  finished  silk 
for  every  100  pounds  of  raw  silk  (containing,  by  the 
way,  25  to  30  pounds  of  gum)  which  was  sent  in  to 
the  dyehouse !  This  "  tin-weighing  "  process  is  also 
applied  to  black  dyeing,  and  enables  the  black  dyer  to 
build  up  his  weight  with  tin  salts  instead  of  limiting 
him  to  iron,  chromium,  ferrocyanide  of  potash,  tan- 
nin, and  logwood. 

Properties  of  Weighted  Silk. — It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  point  out  that  silk,  weighted  to  the  extreme  limit, 
is  hardly  to  be  considered  as  the  most  durable  and 
trustworthy  of  fabrics,  even  when  dyed  by  the  most 


Silk— II  173 

expert  workmen.  And  when  carelessly  prepared 
heavily  weighted  silk  is  an  abomination,  liable  to  crack 
and  wear  away  with  the  least  provocation. 

It  may  be  worth  reminding  some  of  my  fair  readers 
that  the  old  test  of  a  silk  taffeta,  "  so  thick  and  stiff 
that  it  will  stand  of  itself,"  is  nowadays  anything  but 
a  proof  of  good  quality.  One  or  two  manufacturers 
in  this  country  a  few  years  ago  tried  to  revive  the 
almost  forgotten  art  of  making  and  selling  pure-dyed 
goods,  and  one  trouble  they  experienced  in  disposing 
of  their  products,  outside  the  high  price,  was  the  criti- 
cism that  their  silk  felt  so  light  and  thin. 
Prevalence  of  Weighted  Silk. — At  present  it  is  al- 
most impossible,  at  least  in  New  York,  to  buy  pure- 
dyed  heavy  silks.  The  writer,  at  any  rate,  has  tried 
diligently,  during  the  last  year  or  two,  to  find  for  some 
special  experiments  a  piece  of  white  taffeta  which  was 
not  markedly  weighted.  After  visiting  department 
stores  and  the  very  best  dry-goods  stores  in  the  city, 
at  all  of  which  he  was  informed  that  no  such  material 
now  existed,  the  best  that  could  be  obtained  was  one 
make  of  silk  where  the  organzine  or  warp  was  fairly 
pure,  the  tram  being  well  weighted.  Light-weight 
Japanese  and  Chinese  silks,  however,  undyed  or  dyed 
in  the  piece,  can  still  be  procured  with  little  or  no 
weighting. 

Tests  for  Weighted  Silk. — This  silk  may  be  identified 
by  a  very  simple  test.  Pure-dyed  silk,  when  dry,  is 
easily  inflammable.  When  touched  with  a  lighted 
match  it  catches  fire  at  once,  "  carries  the  flame  "  well, 
especially  if  in  the  form  of  thread;  and,  if  followed 


174  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

up  with  a  flame,  it  will  before  long  burn  away  com- 
pletely, leaving  little  or  no  ash  or  residue. 

On  the  other  hand,  weighted  silk,  especially  when 
the  added  mineral  matter  amounts  to  25$  or  over,  is 
quite  hard  to  burn.  If  it  catches  fire  at  all,  it  just 
flashes  up  for  a  moment  and  then  the  flame  dies  right 
out.  And  when  persistently  heated,  until  the  organic 
matter  is  all  burnt  away,  it  still  leaves  a  very  consid- 
erable residue  of  ash. 

When  this  test  is  to  be  made  on  unwoven  or  skein 
silk,  it  is  enough  to  take  two  or  three  threads,  five  or 
six  inches  long,  and  to  light  them  in  the  flame  of  a 
match.  For  piece  goods  it  is  best  to  pick  out  the 
threads  carefully,  with  a  pin  or  fine  knife  blade,  sep- 
arating the  tram  from  the  organzine,  and  then,  with 
a  match,  to  test  each  of  these  in  turn.  A  very  little 
practice  will  enable  the  most  inexperienced  student  to 
make  this  test  satisfactorily. 

Of  course,  for  an  accurate  determination  of  the 
percentage  of  weighting  contained  in  a  given  sample 
of  silk,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  delicate  chemical 
analyses.  But  for  all  ordinary  purposes  this  simple 
flame  test  is  quite  sufficient. 


DYEING  SILK   WITH    COLORS   FAST  TO   WASHING 

As  a  rule  the  method  previously  described  of  dyeing 
silk  with  Acid  dyes  in  a  broken  bath  of  soap,  or  better, 
of  boiled-off  liquor,  will  be  found  perfectly  satisfac- 
tory. The  shades  are  easily  obtained,  the  colors  are 
brilliant,  and,  if  the  right  dyes  are  used,  exceedingly 


Silk— II  175 

fast  to  light,  and  the  material,  if  properly  rinsed, 
suffers  no  deterioration. 

On  the  other  hand  these  colors  are  not,  in  the  slight- 
est degree,  fast  to  washing. 

The  dyed  goods  can  be  cleaned  with  gasoline  and 
the  like,  but  when  passed  through  a  lukewarm  bath 
of  soap  and  water  they  bleed  badly,  and  in  boiling 
soapsuds  the  color  can  be  completely  stripped  from 
them. 

In  most  cases  this  is  not  a  serious  objection,  for  a 
person  who  will  send  a  handsome  hand-dyed  silk  scarf 
or  piece  of  embroidery  to  the  family  washtub  is  en- 
titled to  scant  sympathy  if  the  results  are  disastrous. 
But  occasionally  it  is  important  to  have  colors  on  silk 
which  can  be  guaranteed  against  moderate  or  even 
against,  severe,  washing. 

Fast  Colors  on  Silk. — There  are  two  grades  of  fast- 
ness known  to  the  dyers — "  fast "  and  "  embroidery 
fast." 

"  Fast "  means  simply  that  the  silk  is  to  be  dyed 
fast  to  ordinary,  careful  handling  so  that  the  colors 
will  not  bleed  or  run  in  a  warm  or  even  hot  soap  bath, 
but  does  not  guarantee  them  against  every  possible 
maltreatment. 

The  best  way  of  doing  this  is  by  the  use  of  the 
Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  dyes,  described  in  Chapter  III, 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  only  dye  wool  or  silk  at 
a  high  temperature,  at  or  near  the  boiling  point  and, 
preferably,  in  an  acid  bath,  but,  when  once  on,  are  very 
hard  to  dislodge.  The  selected  ones  are  very  fast  to 
light  and  present  a  great  range  of  bright,  attractive 


176  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

colors,  which  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  brilliant  as 
those  produced  by  the  Acid  dyes. 

They  are  applied  in  a  boiling  bath  containing  a  little 
acetic  acid,  and  a  good  deal  of  salt,  especially  for  full 
shades.  For  lighter  shades,  the  presence  of  salt  is 
hardly  necessary.  The  goods  are  to  be  finished  just  as 
with  the  Acid  dyes,  with  a  soap  bath  followed,  if  the 
scroop  is  desired,  by  a  weak  bath  of  acetic  acid. 

The  results,  when  carefully  done,  are  very  good. 
They  possess,  however,  one  disadvantage  for  the 
amateur  dyer.  These  colors  are  quite  hard  to  strip, 
and  so,  the  desired  effect  must  be  produced  the  first 
time,  or  not  at  all.  It  is  not  possible  to  strip  an  un- 
satisfactory shade  in  a  hot  soap  bath,  and  dye  it  over 
and  over  again  without  injury,  as  in  the  case  with 
Acid  dyes.  They  are  best  stripped  by  soaking  in  a 
bath  of  sodium  hydrosulphite,  and  then  washing. 
Embroidery  Fast  Colors. — While  the  above  process 
gives  shades  fast  enough  against  all  ordinary  washing, 
it  sometimes  happens  that  silk  must  be  dyed  fast 
enough  to  withstand  exactly  the  same  treatment  that 
coarse  cotton  or  linen  goods  are  subjected  to,  without 
bleeding  or  staining.  The  salt  dyes  are  not  quite  fast 
enough  for  this,  particularly  because,  not  having  been 
converted  in  the  dyeing  process  into  a  special  insoluble 
condition,  if  they  should  be  detached  from  the  fibre 
by  strong  or  hot  soaping,  they  would  be  liable  to  stain 
the  neighboring  tissues  and  not  wash  off  quite  clear. 

One  of  the  hardest  tests  that  colored  silk  is  called 
upon  to  stand  is  when,  in  small  quantities,  it  is  used 
with  a  large  amount  of  white  linen  or  cotton  goods. 


Silk— II  177 

Thus,  for  instance,  when  monograms  are  embroidered 
in  red  or  blue  silk  upon  white  towels  or  napkins,  and 
the  latter  are  scrubbed,  week  after  week,  in  the  regular 
wash,  the  color  must  be  fast,  indeed,  not  to  show  some 
evidences  of  running.  Hence  the  term  "  embroidery 
fastness  "  as  applied  to  this  class  of  dyes.  Thanks, 
also,  to  the  amiable  practice  of  the  modern  laundress  of 
lightening  her  labors  by  the  addition  of  bleaching  pow- 
der and  other  strong  chemicals  to  the  washtub,  it  is 
very  important  that  a  silk  dyed  "  embroidery  fast " 
should  be  able  to  withstand  the  action  of  these  agents 
as  well  as  of  soap.  Up  to  the  last  few  years  these 
colors  were  only  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  Alizarine 
dyestuffs,  the  full  rich  scarlet  so  often  used  for  this 
purpose  being  the  modern  form  of  the  old,  madder- 
dyed,  Turkey  red  of  our  forefathers. 

But,  during  the  last  few  years,  the  troublesome  and 
tedious  mordanting  processes  necessary  for  the  proper 
development  of  color  by  the  Alizarine  dyes,  have  been 
replaced,  for  craftsmen,  and,  indeed,  by  most  profes- 
sional dyers,  by  the  much  simpler  and  shorter  processes 
of  vat  dyeing.  As  long  as  Indigo  was  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  class,  it  was  of  very  little  use  for  silk 
dyeing.  But  since  the  introduction  of  the  splendid 
series  of  new  vat  dyes,  the  Algol,  Ciba,  Helindone, 
Indanthrene,  and  Thio  Indigo  colors,  which,  dyed  in  a 
single  bath,  give  a  whole  range  of  brilliant  shades, 
wonderfully  fast  to  light  and  to  washing,  the  necessity 
for  mordant  colors  has  very  largely  disappeared. 


178  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

DYEING  SILK  WITH  VAT  DYES 

It  must  always  be  remembered  when  working  with 
silk,  wool,  leather,  or  any  other  animal  material,  that 
such  materials  are  extremely  sensitive  to  the  action 
of  alkalies,  especially  when  hot  or  caustic,  while  they 
are  but  slightly  injured,  if  at  all,  by  the  action  of 
dilute  acids.  For  this  reason  it  is  always  better,  when- 
ever possible,  to  dye  silk  with  the  Acid  dyes  or  the 
Salt  dyes,  in  an  acid  or  neutral  bath,  rather  than  to 
use  dyestuffs  like  the  Vat  dyes  or  the  Sulphur  colors, 
which  need  an  alkaline  dye-liquor.  Furthermore,  the 
silk  is  likely  to  have  a  more  brilliant  lustre  when  dyed 
with  a  color  which  fastens  to  it  by  chemical  affinity, 
from  a  solution,  rather  than  one  where  the  color  is 
fixed  because  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  changes 
it  into  an  insoluble  powder,  while  in  the  pores  of  the 
silk.  It  is,  however,  perfectly  possible  to  dye  silk 
full  shades  with  the  Vat  dyes  and  even — though  this 
is  not  often  advisable — with  the  Sulphur  dyes,  by 
using  some  simple  precautions. 

The  best  Vat  dyes  for  silk  are  Indigo  itself,  and  its 
substitution  products,  like  Brom  Indigo,  Elberfeld,  or 
the  Thio  Indigo  dyes,  Kalle,  or  else  the  rather  closely 
related  colors  like  the  Helindones,  Metz,  and  the  Ciba 
colors,  Klip  stein.  It  is  of  importance  to  use  only 
those  which  are  shown  in  the  table  on  page  102,  as 
dyeing  in  a  cold,  or  at  most,  a  lukewarm  bath. 

The  dye-bath  should  be  made  with  a  considerable 
amount  of  dyestuff,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of 
keeping  the  goods  in  it  long.  And  the  amount  of 


Silk— II  179 

caustic  alkali  should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  con- 
sistent of  course  with  dissolving  the  reduced  dyestuff. 
It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  presence  of  glue 
or  gelatine  in  the  bath,  or  even  of  glucose  (molasses, 
corn  syrup,  Karo  syrup,  etc.),  protects  the  silk,  wool, 
and  other  animal  fibres  greatly  from  the  action  of 
alkalies.  It  should,  therefore,  be  added  in  quantities 
of  two  or  three  large  tablespoonfuls  to  the  gallon  of 
dye-liquor. 

The  wet  goods  should  be  immersed  in  the  cold  or 
lukewarm  bath,  and  turned  constantly  for  a  few  min- 
utes only,  before  taking  them  out,  wringing  them, 
and  hanging  them  up  to  oxidize.  As  soon  as  the 
color  sets,  which  is  shown  generally,  by  the  change 
of  shade  and  which  never  takes  more  than,  say, 
twenty  minutes  if  the  materials  are  well  opened  up, 
the  goods  should  be  brightened  in  a  hot  bath  of  good, 
neutral,  olive  oil  soap,  and  then  finished  as  previously 
described.  It  will  be  remembered  that  several,  indeed 
most  of  the  best  Vat  colors  do  not  develop  their  final 
shade  at  all,  until  after  the  soaping  process. 

When  carefully  done,  this  process  will  give  exceed- 
ingly fast  and  quite  brilliant  colors,  without  injury  to 
the  strength  of  the  goods. 

Comparative  Results  of  Vat  Dyes  and  Sulphur  Dyes 
on  Silk. — It  is  hard  to  get  full  shades  with  Sulphur 
colors  because  it  is  generally  necessary  to  heat  the  dye- 
bath,  and  this,  owing  to  the  powerful  alkaline  prop- 
erties of  the  sodium  sulphide,  is  very  injurious  to  the 
silk.  Besides  this,  the  sulphur  dyes  are  much  less 
brilliant  than  the  Vat  dyes,  and  have  no  good  red  or 


180  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

orange  shades  in  the  whole  class.  They  accordingly 
should  not  be  used,  excepting  where  no  other  are  avail- 
able, or,  as  will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter,  when 
doing  "  resist  stencilling  "  on  silk. 

On  the  other  hand,  such  very  unusual  advantages 
do  some  of  these  new  Vat  dyes  possess,  for  the  dye- 
ing of  silk  for  special  purposes,  that  large  quantities 
of  Helindones,  Thio  Indigoes,  and  other  good  speci- 
mens of  this  class  are  being  sold,  at  comparatively 
very  high  prices,  to  manufacturers  of  fine  shirtings 
where  the  patterns  are  made  by  weaving  fine  lines  or 
figures  of  brightly  dyed  silk  into  the  linen  or  cotton 
fabric.  Until  the  introduction  of  these  dyes  in  the 
last  two  or  three  years  these  shades  could  not  have 
been  produced  fast  enough  for  this  purpose. 

Sulphur  dyes  can  also  be  used  on  silk  without  in- 
juring the  goods,  by  taking  the  precautions  described 
earlier  in  this  chapter.  The  shades,  however,  are 
quiet  and  dull,  as  compared  to  those  produced  by  other 
classes  of  dyestuffs;  and  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  im- 
possible to  get  a  good  full  red  and,  especially,  a  good 
scarlet,  by  using  these  colors. 

Silk  properly  dyed  with  Sulphur  colors  is  extremely 
fast  to  washing.  But  these  dyes,  unlike  the  best  Vat 
colors,  are  as  a  rule  quite  sensitive  to  bleaching  agents, 
and  therefore  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  general  use 
on  "  embroidery  fast "  silk. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
IMITATION  AND  ARTIFICIAL  SILK 

OWING  to  the  high  price  of  pure  silk  and  the 
bad  wearing  qualities  of  the  highly  adulterated 
silks,  described  in  the  last  chapter,  there  has 
been  for  a  long  time  a  strong  demand  for  a  fabric 
which  would  combine  as  far  as  possible  the  strength 
and  wearing  power  of  the  one,  with  the  cheap  price  of 
the  other,  while  still  retaining  the  lustre  and  "  scroop  " 
and  characteristic  appearance  of  both. 

The  demand  at  present  is  met,  and  not  so  unsuc- 
cessfully, first  by  imitation  silk,  of  which  mercerized 
cotton  is  the  best  example,  and  second,  by  the  various 
forms  of  artificial  silk  which  during  the  last  few  years 
have  been  introduced  widely  in  both  Europe  and  our 
own  country.  The  competition  of  these  two  classes  of 
products  is  not  at  all  to  be  despised.  Their  quality 
is  constantly  improving,  their  price  diminishing,  and 
their  production  increasing  rapidly  from  year  to  year. 
And  if  the  silk  manufacturers  continue  to  produce  such 
poor  material  in  the  line  of  weighted  silk  fabrics  as 
they  have  in  the  past,  it  will  be  but  a  short  time  before 
they  will  find  the  market  almost  entirely  divided  be- 
tween pure-dyed  silks,  on  the  one  hand,  for  expensive 
goods,  and  some  of  these  new  products  for  cheap 
materials. 

181 


1 82  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

MERCERIZED  COTTON 

History  and  Preparation. — This  material  was  first  in- 
troduced as  a  substitute  for  silk  some  ten  or  twelve 
years  ago,  although  the  process  for  making  it  was 
invented  about  1840,  by  a  celebrated  English  dyer, 
John  Mercer.  He  discovered  that  when  cotton,  either 
in  cloth  or  yarn,  was  subjected  for  a  short  time  to  the 
action  of  strong  caustic  alkali,  and  then  thoroughly 
washed,  the  resulting  material  was  much  stronger  than 
before,  had  shrunk  very  considerably,  and  had  a  much 
greater  affinity  for  dyestuffs.  For  instance,  dyes  like 
the  Basic  colors,  which  give  but  a  temporary  stain  on 
ordinary  cotton,  will  dye  with  some  degree  of  fastness 
cotton  thus  treated  with  alkali,  without  the  use  of 
mordants.  Mercer  patented  his  discovery  and  made 
some  use  of  it  in  calico  printing;  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
making  of  "  crinkled  "  goods.  But  the  process  was 
nearly  forgotten  until,  in  1889,  it  was  discovered  that, 
by  proper  treatment,  cotton  could  by  this  means  be 
made  so  lustrous  as  to  compare  not  unfavorably  with 
silk. 

To  make  the  cotton  lustrous,  the  goods,  after  dip- 
ping into  the  strong  alkali,  are  kept  firmly  stretched, 
and  their  strong  tendency  to  shrink  resisted,  until  the 
alkali  has  been  thoroughly  rinsed  off  and  the  last  traces 
neutralized  with  a  little  acid.  If  this  is  done  carefully, 
when  finally  dried  the  cotton  fibres  will  be  found  drawn 
out  smooth  and  lustrous,  while  still  retaining  their  new 
qualities  of  strength  and  increased  dyeing  power.  To 
get  good  results  in  this  process  the  materials  treated, 


Imitation  and  Artificial  Silk          183 

whether  in  yarn  or  cloth,  must  be  made  of  the  very 
best  and  longest  stapled  cotton,  preferably  Egyptian, 
and  when  well  done  the  results  are  extremely  satis- 
factory. The  lustre  is  not  as  good  as  the  very  best 
silk,  but  it  is  quite  well  marked,  and  for  replacing  the 
cheap  grades  of  heavily  weighted  silks,  as,  for  in- 
stance, for  underwear,  linings,  etc.,  the  mercerized 
goods  are  of  very  great  value,  owing  to  their  strength 
and  durability,  as  well  as  their  cheapness. 
Dyeing  of  Mercerised  Cotton. — Cotton,  thus  treated, 
is  dyed  in  the  same  way  that  ordinary  cotton  is,  with 
the  exception  that  it  takes  the  dyes  more  rapidly,  and, 
as  a  rule,  gives  deeper  and  more  brilliant  shades  with 
the  same  amount  of  coloring  matter. 

For  special  purposes  it  may  be  best  to  use  the  Sul- 
phur or  the  Vat  dyes,  but  in  general  this  material  is 
best  dyed  with  the  Salt  dyes,  which  are  not  only  easy 
to  apply,  but  are  fast  to  light,  very  brilliant,  and  on 
these  goods,  at  any  rate,  very  fairly  fast  to  washing. 
As  before  mentioned,  the  fastness  to  both  light  and 
washing  may  be  considerably  improved  by  after  treat- 
ment of  the  dyed  goods,  i.e.,  by  passing  them  through 
a  hot  bath  containing  a  tablespoonful  each  of  copper 
sulphate,  potassium  bichromate,  and  acetic  acid  to  the 
gallon  of  water. 

This,  however,  will  rarely  be  found  necessary,  pro- 
vided the  selected  colors  are  used,  and  the  color  has 
been  applied  at  the  boil  in  a  bath  containing  consider- 
able salt. 


184  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ARTIFICIAL  SILK 

History — The  famous  old  French  chemist,  Reaumur, 
in  the  year  1734,  suggested,  after  a  study  of  the  silk 
worm,  and  of  the  method  by  which  it  "  spins  "  the  nat- 
ural thread,  that  it  might  be  possible  to  make  a  jelly- 
like  substance  which  could  be  drawn  out  into  a  fine 
thread  and,  coagulating,  form  an  artificial  silk. 

This  suggestion  was  first  acted  on,  in  a  practical 
way,  in  the  year  1855,  when  Andermars  obtained  some 
curious  results  by  dipping  a  needle  or  fine  metal  rod 
into  a  thin  viscous  solution  known  as  collodion,  and 
then  drawing  it  out  rapidly,  made  fine,  smooth  threads 
as  the  material  solidified.  This  collodion,  which  for 
many  years  has  been  in  common  use  in  minor  surgery 
to  paint  on  wounds  and  cuts,  because  it  leaves  a  film 
of  artificial  skin,  and  in  more  recent  times  has  been 
much  used  in  photography,  is  a  solution  of  gun  cotton 
or  nitrocellulose  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether. 
In  1885  Count  Hilary  de  Chardonnet  made  improve- 
ments in  this  last  process,  and  produced  successfully 
the  first  real  artificial  silk  threads  on  a  commercial 
scale. 

Chardonnet  Silk. — He  also  used  a  thick  collodion  solu- 
tion, but  instead  of  drawing  it  out  he  pressed  it  out 
through  fine  holes  by  using  very  great  pressure.  As 
fast  as  the  gummy  thread  exuded  it  was  picked  up, 
carried  along  into  a  drying  room,  where  the  alcohol 
and  ether  could  escape  (to  be  condensed  later  and  used 
over  again),  and  then  the  solid  fibre  was  passed  into  a 
solution  of  some  suitable  reducing  agent,  such  as 


Imitation  and  Artificial  Silk          185 

ammonium  or  sodium  sulphydrate,  which  converts  the 
inflammable  gun  cotton  into  its  original  condition  of 
cellulose.  These  resulting  threads,  being  smooth  and 
uniform  when  properly  made,  have  very  great  lustre. 
Indeed,  they  are  often  far  more  brilliant  than  the  very 
best  and  finest  natural  silk,  and  can  be  dyed  and  woven 
into  beautiful  fabrics. 

This  discovery  of  Chardonnet's  was  at  once  utilized, 
and  large  and  flourishing  factories  of  Chardonnet  silk 
sprang  up  all  over  Europe.  The  first  large  factory, 
which  is  still  doing  a  very  profitable  business,  was  at 
Besan9on,  in  France,  and  later  a  large  factory  was 
established  at  Frankfort,  Germany. 
Pauly  Silk. — The  success  of  this  process  aroused  the 
interest  of  other  chemists,  and  before  long  several 
rival  processes  came  into  existence,  also  based  on  the 
use  of  a  viscous  solution  of  a  cellulose  compound.  One 
company,  making  the  so-called  Pauly  silk,  utilized  the 
solvent  action  of  an  ammoniacal  copper  solution  upon 
cellulose  for  their  starting  point. 
Elberfeld  Silk,  Glanzstoff. — The  Farbenfabriken  von 
Elberfeld,  famous  manufacturers  of  dyestuffs,  took 
up  the  manufacture  of  silk  from  a  solution  of  a  com- 
pound of  cellulose  with  acetic  acid;  and  the  Elberfeld 
silk,  or,  as  it  is  widely  known  in  Germany,  Glanzstoff, 
is  every  year  becoming  a  more  and  more  important 
factor  in  the  silk  business. 

Viscose  Silk. — A  still  different  process,  which  during 
the  past  two  or  three  years  has  been  successfully  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States,  depends  upon  the  curious 
substance  called  Viscose,  a  thick,  sticky  solution  of 


1 86  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

cellulose  made  by  first  treating  wood  pulp,  cotton  or 
other  vegetable  fibre  with  strong  caustic  soda  and  then 
dissolving  the  resulting  product  in  carbon  disulphide. 

This  Viscose  was  first  introduced  for  many  different 
purposes.  The  solvent,  carbon  disulphide,  is  very  vola- 
tile, and  flies  off  readily,  leaving  the  cellulose  behind 
in  the  form  of  a  stiff  jelly  which,  on  drying,  becomes 
solid  and  strong.  So  Viscose  was  used  for  water- 
proofing paper,  etc.,  for  making  solid  articles  like 
piano  keys  and  billiard  balls,  and  even  for  making 
opaque  patterns  in  calico  printing.  But  its  most  val- 
uable application  is  for  artificial  silk.  It  is  pressed  out 
through  fine  holes,  and  the  thread  resulting  quickly 
solidifies  as  the  solvent  evaporates,  and  can  be  dried 
carefully  and  worked  up  on  reels  or  bobbins,  to  be 
dyed  later. 

Properties. — Artificial  silk,  as  a  rule,  is  a  little  stiffer 
than  natural  silk,  but  has  an  exceedingly  fine  lustre. 
It  cannot  be  spun  in  as  fine  threads  as  fine,  natural 
silk,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  produced  in  thick, 
smooth  threads  which,  stained  as  a  rule  black  or  dark 
colors,  quite  replace  horsehair  for  furniture  coverings, 
etc.  Similar  products  are  made,  too,  by  coating  cotton 
with  a  layer  of  artificial  silk. 

Another  curious  use  of  this  artificial  silk  process  is 
when  it  is  formed  into  still  larger  threads,  very  lustrous 
and  quite  stiff,  and  used  for  plumes  and  aigrettes. 
They  can  be  dyed  any  color,  have  excellent  lustre,  and 
are  extremely  useful  for  millinery. 
Precautions  Necessary  in  Dyeing. — One  great  draw- 
back is  common  to  all  these  different  varieties  of  arti- 


Imitation  and  Artificial  Silk          187 

ficial  silk.  They  are  quite  strong,  although  not  par- 
ticularly elastic,  when  dry,  but  when  wet  lose  their 
strength  very  markedly.  Indeed,  at  one  time  it  was 
found  extremely  troublesome  to  dye  them,  as  the  silk 
skein  dyers,  accustomed  to  work  and  wring  and 
stretch  their  silk,  with  impunity,  in  and  out  of  the  hot 
dye-baths,  would  try  the  same  treatment  with  this  new 
product,  and  in  consequence  ruin  every  skein.  When 
thoroughly  wet  through  in  a  hot  bath  the  thread  will 
soften  until  a  skein  may  hardly  bear  its  own  weight. 
Accordingly,  the  dyeing  is  always  done  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  generally  at  a  lukewarm  or  only  mod- 
erately high  temperature.  The  skeins  should  be 
handled  as  little  as  possible  in  the  dye-bath,  and,  when 
taken  out  to  wring,  should  be  rinsed  slightly  to  get  rid 
of  extra  color,  acid,  etc.,  and  then  carefully  dried,  not 
by  twisting  on  two  sticks,  as  is  customary  with  other 
materials,  but  by  wrapping  in  cheese  cloth  or  blotting 
paper  and  then  running  the  skeins  backward  and  for- 
ward through  the  clothes  wringer. 
Tests  for  Artificial  Silk. — It  has  been  ascertained  that 
all  varieties  of  artificial  silk  now  on  the  market  are 
made  from  some  form  of  cellulose.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  take  thick  jellies  made  from  gelatine  or  sim- 
ilar animal  compounds,  and  make  threads  from  them, 
coagulating  them  later  by  treatment  with  formalde- 
hyde or  similar  chemicals. 

These  experiments  have,  however,  not  as  yet  proved 
successful.  Accordingly,  any  test  that  will  distin- 
guish between  a  vegetable  and  an  animal  fibre  will 
show  whether  a  brilliant  thread  or  piece  of  textiles 


1 88  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

contains  natural  silk  or  not.  The  simplest  of  tests  is, 
of  course,  to  burn  a  little  with  a  match  or  at  a  flame 
and  see  if  there  results  the  characteristic  "  burnt 
feather  smell  "  of  charring  animal  tissues.  This  odor 
accompanies  the  natural  silk.  The  chemist  would 
probably  make  the  same  test  more  accurately  by  heat- 
ing a  wad  of  the  material  in  the  bottom  of  a  small  test 
tube  and  noticing  whether  ammonia  was  being  evolved, 
and  whether  the  distillate  was  alkaline  in  reaction. 
The  ammonia  and  alkali  resulting  from  the  nitro- 
genous organic  matter  is  a  certain  indication  of  animal 
matter. 

To  distinguish  between  mercerized  cotton  and  arti- 
ficial silk,  it  is  generally  enough  to  soak  the  samples 
for  a  short  time,  say  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  in  boiling 
water  and  test  their  strength.  Mercerized  cotton  prop- 
erly made  would  be  just  as  strong  afterward  as  before, 
while  the  artificial  silk  would  be  soft  and  weak,  if  it 
would  not,  indeed,  break  down  completely.  Besides 
this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  mercerized  cotton, 
in  spite  of  its  lustre,  is  made  up  of  threads  tightly 
spun  together  from  a  large  number  of  short  fibres, 
none  of  which  are  over  two  inches  or  so  in  length, 
while  the  artificial  silks  are  made  up,  like  the  natural 
silk,  of  long,  continuous  fibres  twisted  together  to 
form  the  yarn. 

In  general,  these  artificial  silks,  manufactured  as 
they  are  from  wood  pulp  and  other  vegetable  ma- 
terials, are  to  be  dyed  with  the  Salt,  Sulphur,  or  Vat 
dyes,  care  always  being  taken  to  expose  them  to  the 
action  of  hot  dye-liquors  as  short  a  time  as  possible. 


Imitation  and  Artificial  Silk          189 

The  Salt  dyes  are  less  apt  to  interfere  with  the  brilliant 
lustre,  but  the  Sulphur  and  Vat  dyes  have  the  great 
advantage  of  dyeing  in  a  cold  or  lukewarm  bath,  with- 
out any  loss  in  fastness. 

The  Chardonnet  silk  has  a  special  affinity  for  the 
Basic  dyes,  and  in  the  trade  is  usually  dyed  both  light 
and  dark  shades  with  these  coloring  matters,  without 
previous  mordanting,  in  a  slightly  acid  bath.  This 
practice,  however,  while  simple  and  easy,  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  For  the  Basic  dyes,  with  but  few  ex- 
ceptions, fugitive  under  all  circumstances,  are  particu- 
larly sensitive  to  light,  when  dyed  in  light  shades, 
upon  such  a  brilliant  and  almost  transparent  medium 
as  this  is.  On  the  other  hand,  articles  made  of  arti- 
ficial silk,  being  easily  injured  by  rain,  are  not  so  liable 
to  be  exposed  to  the  open  weather  as  some  other  less 
delicate  materials. 

The  Viscose  and  Elberfeld  silks  (Glanzstoff)  have 
less  affinity  for  the  Basic  dyes,  and  dye  more  readily 
with  the  Salt  and  Sulphur  colors  than  the  Chardonnet 
silk,  made  from  gun  cotton.  But  it  is  perfectly  possi- 
ble to  dye  the  latter  also  with  fast  colors  of  the  Salt, 
Sulphur,  or  Vat  classes,  providing  large  amounts  of 
dyestuff  are  used  to  bring  up  the  shade.  Indeed  it  is 
poor  economy  to  be  sparing  of  the  coloring  matter, 
when  working  with  any  kind  of  artificial  silk.  For 
speed  is  essential,  and  the  dyer  who  lets  his  material 
remain  long  in  the  dye-bath  is  liable  to  get  into  dif- 
ficulties. 

The  artificial  silk,  after  dyeing,  should  be  finished 
much  like  natural  silk,  by  rinsing  and  then  passing 


190  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

through  a  bath  containing  some  olive  oil,  emulsified 
in  a  weak  bath  of  soda  ash.  This  increases  the  lustre. 
It  should  also  be  dried  at  a  fairly  low  temperature  and, 
while  drying,  kept  stretched  out  by  hanging  a  wooden 
or  glass  rod  in  the  loop  of  the  hanging  skein,  or  some 
similar  device,  taking  care  to  avoid  strain  great  enough 
to  pull  apart  the  weakened  fibre. 

When  dyeing  this  material  great  care  should  also 
be  taken  in  tying  up  the  individual  skeins  and  in 
handling  them.  Turn  them  in  the  dye-bath  as  little 
as  possible  consistent  with  even  dyeing.  The  threads, 
unless  very  tightly  spun,  are  constantly  liable  to  come 
untwisted,  and  the  knots  to  untie,  causing  much  an- 
noyance. 

In  conclusion,  when  carefully  made  and  dyed  these 
artificial  silks  furnish  beautiful,  brilliant,  lustrous 
fibres,  which  can  be  used  to  great  effect  in  many  kinds 
of  handicraft  work.  They  can  easily  be  procured 
with  more  lustre  than  the  very  best  natural  silk,  but 
even  when  dry  are  deficient  in  elasticity,  and  to  some 
extent  in  strength,  and  when  wet  are  very  fragile. 
The  price  is  kept  at  a  rather  high  figure,  as  a  rule 
only  from  25  to  50  cents  a  pound  less  than  that  of 
good  natural  silk.  But  every  year  the  production  is 
increasing,  new  factories  are  springing  up  in  every 
country,  and  as  there  is  no  limit  to  the  production 
excepting  the  demand,  it  is  probable  that  in  a  few 
years,  thanks  to  competition,  the  price  will  be  dropped 
very  considerably  and  the  whole  silk  business  will  be 
revolutionized.  At  present  it  is  estimated  that  the  pro- 
duction of  the  artificial  silk  is  not  far  from  one-fifth 


Imitation  and  Artificial  Silk          191 

that  of  natural  silk,  and  this  fraction  is  getting  larger 
every  month. 

Indeed,  the  rise  of  this  particular  industry  may 
fairly  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  interesting, 
most  useful,  and  most  valuable  contributions  of  the 
manufacturing  chemist  during  the  last  quarter  cen- 
tury. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
TIED  AND  DYED  WORK 

HITHERTO,  in  this  book,  the  student  has  been 
instructed  in  the  general  art  of  dyeing  and 
coloring  the  various  fabrics,  both  in  the  yarn 
and  in  piece,  without  any  attention  to  the  subject  of 
coloring  them  in  patterns  or  designs.    The  remaining 
chapters  will  be  devoted  to  various  methods,  suitable 
for  craftsmen,  by  which  the  dyestuffs  can  be  applied 
so  as  to  give  more  or  less  definite  patterns  to  the  ob- 
jects to  be  colored. 

This  art,  in  its  general  principles,  was  worked  out 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  at  very  early  periods  in 
their  civilization.  In  a  great  many  cases  colored  de- 
signs in  textiles  were  formed,  in  the  process  of  weav- 
ing, by  incorporating  yarns  of  different  colors  in  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  fabric. 

But  along  with  this,  at  a  very  early  stage  in  the 
textile  industry,  there  was  developed  the  art  of  making 
patterns,  regular  or  irregular,  by  the  action  of  dye- 
stuffs  upon  previously  woven  goods.  In  general  there 
are  three  methods  for  doing  this  which,  it  is  claimed, 
were  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  just  as  well  as 
they  are  to  the  modern  calico  printer.  These  three 
methods  are  known  as  Direct  Coloring,  Discharge, 

and  Resist  dyeing. 

192 


FIG.    2— TIED    AND    DYED    HEADDRESS    FROM    AN 
INCA  TOMB  IX  PERU 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  193 

Direct  Coloring. — This  means  the  application  of  the 
dyestuff  or  coloring  matter  to  different  special  por- 
tions of  the  textile  or  fabric,  so  as  to  give  a  colored 
design,  upon  a  lighter  background.  The  dye  may  be 
applied  by  dipping  special  portions  of  the  fabric  into 
it,  in  which  case  the  pattern  is  apt  to  be  a  very  loose 
and  irregular  one.  Or,  if  the  material  will  take  the 
dye  readily  enough,  as  for  instance  in  the  staining  of 
leather,  it  may  be  applied  with  a  brush,  or  a  small  pad. 

More  formal  and  intricate  designs  can  be  made  by 
applying  the  color  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  through 
the  help  of  stencils,  as  worked  out  by  the  Japanese 
so  beautifully,  or  by  means  of  wooden  or  metallic 
blocks,  as  in  the  block  printing  in  the  East,  which  in 
Europe  and  America  has  developed  into  the  art  of 
calico  printing,  by  rolls  run  by  machinery. 
Discharge. — This  process  is  the  exact  reverse  of  the 
preceding  one,  in  that  the  cloth  or  other  material  is 
dyed  first,  and  later  the  color  is  either  entirely  re- 
moved or,  it  may  be,  very  decidedly  altered  in  shade, 
in  certain  special  parts,  by  the  application  of  some 
chemical. 

The  earliest  examples  of  this  are  where  cloths 
stained  with  Iron  buff,  have  had  patterns  made  in 
them  by  washing  out  certain  portions  with  acid.  Just 
as  some  of  the  earliest  forms  of  "  direct  coloring  " 
are  shown  in  the  dark  patterns  of  leaves,  formed  by 
the  same  Iron  buff  dye,  upon  cloth  against  which 
moist  fresh  leaves  have  been  crushed. 

The  discharge  process  is  not  as  commonly  used  by 
craftsmen  as  the  other  two  methods,  because  it  has 


194  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

not  always  been  easy  to  find  or  to  use  a  chemical  that 
will  properly  destroy  or  change  any  particular  color, 
without  at  the  same  time,  if  fast  dyes  are  used,  de- 
stroying or  at  least  injuring  the  fabric.  The  profes- 
sional dyer,  working  in  conjunction  with  the  chemist, 
carefully  weighing  the  reagents,  and  using  steam  chests 
and  drying  chambers  with  definite  and  carefully  regu- 
lated temperatures,  can  fully  discharge  even  the  fastest 
dyes  without  danger.  But  this  is  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible for  the  craftsman,  and  while  the  process  will 
be  discussed  and  described  under  the  subject  of  sten- 
cilling, it  will  be  found,  comparatively,  of  but  little 
practical  importance. 

Resist. — The  third  and  last  method  for  getting  colored 
patterns  is  one  which  has  been  used  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  by  the  most  widely  scattered  nations, 
and  which,  to  this  day,  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  important  processes  at  the  disposal  of 
the  craftsman,  as  opposed  to  the  professional  dyer. 

It  consists  of  applying  to  certain  portions  of  the 
fabric,  before  dyeing,  some  agent  which,  acting  either 
chemically  or  mechanically,  will  "  resist  "  the  action  of 
the  dyestuff  at  the  places  where  it  is  applied.  These 
parts  accordingly  will  remain  in  their  original  color, 
or  at  any  rate  will  be  but  slightly  colored,  while  other 
portions,  not  so  protected,  will  be  dyed  full  shades. 
This,  in  many  respects,  is  the  most  advantageous  way 
of  obtaining  patterns  for  the  craftsman,  because  no 
action  has  taken  place  tending  to  injure  the  strength 
or  durability  of  either  material  or  dyestuff,  and  as  the 
color  is  applied  in  a  regular  dye-bath  there  is  generally 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  195 

an  opportunity  to  apply  the  dyestuffs  in  the  most  ap- 
proved manner. 

Variations  in  Resist  Work. — The  resist  method  has 
been  discovered  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  has 
been  carried  out  in  many  ways.  In  Java,  for  in- 
stance, a  beautiful  art  was  developed  known  as  Batik, 
to  be  described  later,  in  more  detail.  These  people 
used,  as  a  resisting  medium,  molten  beeswax,  which 
could  be  poured  or  painted  on  to  the  cloth  wherever 
desired,  and,  according  to  whether  it  was  applied  hot 
or  only  just  warm  enough  to  be  liquid,  would  protect 
the  material  covered,  either  wholly  or  partially,  against 
the  action  of  dyestuffs  in  a  cold  bath. 

Less  elaborate,  but  still  very  interesting  processes 
are  reported  from  many  other  quarters.  As  will  be 
described  in  the  next  chapter  the  Japanese  have  long 
used  a  resist  paste,  to  make  white  patterns  against 
dark  backgrounds  with  their  stencils.  In  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  natives  have  learnt  to  make  patterns  by 
pressing  pieces  of  cloth  tightly  between  shells,  as  for 
instance  the  two  halves  of  a  clam  shell,  and  then  dye- 
ing or  staining  around  them.  Other  tribes  learnt  the 
trick  of  tying  or  sewing  flat  thin  pieces  of  wood  to- 
gether, tightly  compressing  the  cloth  between  them 
and  thus  preventing  the  dyestuff  from  reaching  those 
parts  of  the  goods  when  dyed  later. 

But  the  most  common  process,  and  one  which  is 
not  only  the  simplest  and  easiest  to  carry  out,  but  also 
offers  to  the  skilful  dyer  an  almost  unlimited  range 
of  interesting  and  effective  results,  in  color  and  de- 
sign, is  the  so-called  "  Tied  and  Dyed  Work." 


196  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

TIED  AND  DYED  WORK 

In  this  process,  Tied  and  Dyed  Work,  the  pat- 
tern is  made  by  tying  string  or  'cord,  more  or  less 
tightly,  around  certain  selected  portions  of  the  ma- 
terial. When  the  goods,  thus  treated,  are  subsequently 
dyed,  these  tied  portions  will  be  kept  from  the  action 
of  the  dyestuff,  and  after  the  operation  is  finished 
and  the  strings  cut  or  untied,  they  will  be  lighter  in 
color  than  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  fabric. 

This  process  has  been  known  and  widely  used  in 
many  different  parts  of  the  world.  Some  interesting 
examples  of  it  are  found  among  the  textiles  from  the 
so-called  Inca  graves,  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  dating 
from  before  the  Spanish  conquest  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury (see  Fig.  2).  Some  extremely  interesting  speci- 
mens of  tied  work  can  be  seen  in  the  Philippine  col- 
lection in  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
brought  from  the  Bagobo  tribe  in  Mindanao  (see 
Fig.  5).  While  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  this  process  can  be  found  in  the  so-called 
chundries  or  chunaries,  imported  from  Central  Hin- 
dustan, and  sold  by  traders  in  Eastern  goods  and  tex- 
tiles at  very  moderate  prices. 

Chundries. — These  are  chiefly  manufactured  in  the 
native  State  of  Kotah,  in  Rajputana,  and  have  been 
produced  there  from  time  immemorial,  for  use  as 
clothing  and  hangings.  Those  that  are  imported  to 
this  country  (see  Figs.  3  and  4)  are  generally  made 
of  extremely  thin,  flimsy  muslin,  most  elaborately 
decorated  in  three  or  four  colors,  with  patterns  made 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  197 

up  of  an  infinite  number  of  small  round  or  rectangular 
rings  of  white  or  light  colors,  against  a  darker  back- 
ground. They  can  be  obtained  in  the  same  con- 
dition that  they  left  the  dyer's  hands,  folded  tightly 
together,  colored  red  or  brown  or  black  from  the  final 
dye-bath,  and  covered  over  with  hundreds  of  little 
hard  knots  or  lumps.  These,  on  examination,  prove 
to  be  the  tied  places,  each  tied  by  hand,  by  winding 
round  and  round  the  base  of  the  projecting  loop  of 
cloth,  a  very  fine  thread,  closely  laid  and  knotted 
extremely  firm  and  tight. 

When  unwound,  which  must  be  done  with  much 
care  on  account  of  the  thin,  fragile  nature  of  the  cloth, 
the  knotted  portions  often  show  most  beautiful  and 
interesting  designs — done  in  different  colors,  put  on 
before  tying,  and  protected  from  the  final  bath  by  the 
close  tight  layer  of  thread.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing of  them  are  the  so-called  "  Shikar  "  chundries, 
where  the  design,  repeated  over  and  over  again,  illus- 
trates some  hunting  scene,  as,  for  instance,  a  tiger 
hunt,  with  the  animal  springing  at  a  man  armed  with 
a  sword,  and  a  horse  or  elephant  with  howdah.  When 
fully  opened  one  of  these  chundries  makes  a  strip  of 
cloth  some  five  or  six  yards  long,  and  in  Rajputana  is 
used  as  the  full-dress  costume  of  a  young  lady  of 
fashion,  being  folded  round  and  round  the  body  and 
over  the  head  in  most  graceful  and  charming  lines. 

On  studying  one  of  these  chundries  one  is  struck 
by  the  immense  amount  of  labor  expended  in  the  tying 
process.  The  knots  which  form  the  pattern  make, 
frequently,  as  many  as  twenty-five  or  thirty  to  the 


198  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

running  inch,  and  each  one  is  tied  so  tightly  around 
the  cloth,  folded  so  as  to  form  four  thicknesses,  and 
drawn  or  pressed  out  into  loops,  that  it  completely 
protects  the  part  it  covers  from  the  dyestuff,  only  the 
tip  of  the  loop  remaining  exposed.  Hence,  when  it  is 
untied,  there  results  a  small  circular  or  rectangular 
ring  not  over  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
To  obtain  a  surface  around  which  the  string  can  be 
thus  tightly  tied,  the  folded  cloth  is  evidently  pressed 
out  from  the  back  by  a  thin  pin  or  spike  (the  effect 
can  be  produced  by  tying  a  thin  piece  of  cloth  tightly 
around  a  wooden  toothpick)  around  which  the  thread 
can  be  tightly  drawn  and  knotted,  and  which  usually 
is  left  in  during  the  dyeing  process  and  taken  out 
afterwards. 

The  patterns  are  so  elaborate,  and  yet  are  repeated 
over  and  over  again,  on  the  same  chundries,  with  such 
regularity,  that  it  is  probable  that  some  simple  ap- 
paratus is  used  to  press  out  the  cloth  in  exactly  the 
proper  places.  This  could  be  done  by  using  a  little 
frame  with  holes  in  it,  into  which  pins  of  wood  or 
ivory  could  be  'set,  like  the  markers  in  a  cribbage  board, 
for  instance,  forming  definite  figures  on  which  piece 
after  piece  of  cloth  could  be  placed  and  pressed  out 
into  shape. 

The  most  interesting  thing,  after  all,  about  these 
extraordinarily  elaborate  pieces  of  handicraft  work  is 
the  fact  that  this  vast  amount  of  time  and  labor  is 
expended  upon  such  poor  materials.  The  muslin  of 
which  they  are  made  is  so  thin  and  poor  that  consid- 
erable pains  must  be  taken  in  opening  them,  to  pre- 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  199 

vent  their  tearing  from  the  strain  of  pulling  off  the 
knots  of  fine  thread.  Then,  too,  the  colors  as  a  rule  not 
only  are  fugitive  to  sunlight,  but  are  easily  affected 
by  washing.  Two  minutes  scrubbing  in  hot  soapsuds 
will  almost  completely  efface  the  pattern  and  color 
from  some  of  the  most  elaborate  and  beautiful  of  them 
all.  And  this  is  not,  as  is  claimed  frequently  by 
modern  writers  upon  Eastern  handicrafts,  due  to  the 
introduction  of  cheap  and  fugitive  "  aniline "  dye- 
stuffs.  The  dyes,  used  for  generations  by  the  Raj- 
put craftsmen,  for  their  most  elaborate  chundries, 
were  principally  tumeric,  safflower,  and  other  in- 
ferior vegetable  colors,  applied  so  loosely  as  to  be 
merely  stains  rather  than  dyes — and  it  would  be  hard 
to  get  modern  dyestuffs  which,  applied  with  any  care, 
would  be  as  fugitive  as  those  commonly  used  for  the 
very  best  examples  of  these  beautiful  textiles. 
Tied  Work  in  the  Philippines — Of  different  quality  is 
the  work  of  the  Bagobo  tribe  in  Mindanao,  inter- 
esting specimens  of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Philip- 
pine collection  of  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  As  shown  in  Fig.  5,  a  headdress  belonging 
to  Miss  Laura  Benedict,  the  work  is  not  unlike  that 
done  by  the  ancient  Peruvians,  and  the  patterns,  al- 
though often  exceedingly  complex,  are  invariably 
geometrical,  and  do  not  approach  in  variety  or  in  inter- 
est those  from  India.  The  coloring,  too,  is  far  simpler 
— practically  all  the  examples  showing  light  patterns 
on  a  dull  purplish  background.  But  the  dyeing  is  most 
carefully  and  thoroughly  made — taking  about  thirty 
days  to  complete,  dyeing  each  night  and  washing 


aoo  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

thoroughly  each  morning  during  all  that  time,  until 
the  final  product  is  exceedingly  permanent  to  both 
light  and  washing. 

Miss  Benedict,  who  was  the  first  white  person  to 
enter  the  Bagobo  country  and  study  and  report  on 
their  handicrafts,  states  that  the  patterns  are  made 
in  a  curious  manner.  The  pattern  is  first  outlined 
upon  the  cloth  by  a  series  of  basting  stitches,  the  inter- 
section of  two  stitches  being  the  mark  for  the  centre 
of  one  of  the  tied  places.  Then  the  operator,  seated, 
puts  over  her  big  toe  a  ring  attached  to  a  line  some 
three  feet  long,  on  the  end  of  which  is  a  simple  hook 
made  from  a  bent  and  sharpened  piece  of  copper  or 
brass  wire.  Holding  the  cloth  in  one  hand,  she  then 
fastens  the  hook  into  one  of  the  marked  places,  pulls 
the  part  out  with  her  foot,  and  ties  up  the  loop  thus 
formed,  rapidly  and  tightly,  with  waxed  thread.  This 
she  winds  round  and  round  the  loop,  beginning  with 
the  bottom  first,  and  knots  it  tight,  using  the  free 
hand,  assisted,  except  with  very  expert  workers,  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  other. 

Specimens  of  textiles  thus  tied,  and  not  yet  dyed  or 
opened,  and  also  of  the  toe-ring,  line,  and  hook  used 
in  the  process,  can  be  seen  at  the  Museum,  along  with 
a  great  variety  of  beautiful  specimens  of  the  finished 
work. 

It  is  rare  that,  in  our  present  surroundings,  any 
craftsman  can  spare  the  time  and  patience  to  copy 
the  elaborate  patterns  made  in  these  ways  by  the  East- 
ern dyers.  But  equally  beautiful  and  interesting  re- 
sults can  be  produced  with  very  little  expenditure  of 


FIG.   5— BAGOBO  HEADDRESS  FROM  THE   ISLAND 
OF  MINDANAO 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  201 

time  and  labor,  by  the  skilful  dyer,  who  knows  some- 
thing of  the  fundamental  principles  of  design  and  can 
use  his  dyes  so  as  to  get  soft  and  beautiful  as  well  as 
permanent  color  effects.  It  is  impossible,  in  a  work 
like  this,  to  do  more  than  suggest  some  of  the  many 
ways  in  which  this  process  can  be  used.  The  rest 
depenfds  entirely  upon  practice — and  more  can  be 
learned  about  its  possibilities  in  a  couple  of  hours' 
work  with  muslin  or  cheesecloth,  and  a  ball  of  twine 
or  tape,  in  connection  with  a  dye-pot  of  a  good  Sulphur 
dye,  than  by  weeks  of  listening  or  reading  about  it. 

VARIETIES  OF  TIED  WORK 

Tied  on  Itself. — Interesting  effects  may  often  be  pro- 
duced on  long  pieces  of  cloth,  scarfs,  and  the  like,  by 
folding  them  over  and  tying  them  into  knots  at  one 
or  two  selected  places,  before  dyeing.  Fig.  6  shows 
an  example  of  this,  (a)  Tied  and  ready  for  dyeing; 
(b)  Dyed  and  opened  out.  This  when  worked  out 
in  different  colors,  dyeing  first,  with  some  light  color, 
then  tying  and  dyeing  with  another  color,  or  else 
coloring  the  tied  and  dyed  piece  with  a  second  light 
bath  of  another  color,  gives  very  pleasant  results  as 
applied  to  draperies — as,  for  instance,  simple  costumes 
for  pageants  and  out-of-doors  plays.  It  is,  however, 
almost,  if  not  quite,  impossible  to  obtain  definite  de- 
signs in  this  way,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  to  duplicate 
results.  But  occasionally  the  process  is  useful. 
Tied  with  String  or  Tape — Far  more  important  is 
the  process  generally  meant  by  the  term  "  tied  and 
dyed  work,"  where  the  pattern  is  made  by  tying  either 


2O2  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

thread,  string,  cord,  or  even  tape,  more  or  less  tightly 
around  special  portions  of  the  cloth.  These  portions 
are  usually  drawn  out,  or  pressed  out,  or  folded,  so 
as  to  form  a  sort  of  loop  around  which  the  string 
can  be  tied.  But  occasionally  the  whole  cloth,  laid 
flat  and  with  but  little  folding,  is  tied  tightly  across, 
so  that  the  reserved  part  forms,  when  untied,  a  more 
or  less  straight  band. 

Tied  in  Bands. — It  is  often  desirable  to  separate  one 
part  of  a  design  from  another  by  means  of  a  broad 
line  or  band  of  white  or  light  color.  This  can  be 
readily  done  by  tying  a  piece  of  strong  twine  or 
tape,  tightly,  right  across  the  goods  at  the  desired 
place  before  dyeing  it.  Quite  elaborate  and  interest- 
ing effects  can  be  produced  in  this  way  by  first  fold- 
ing the  cloth  lengthways,  and  then  tying  a  width  of 
several  inches  with  a  broad  piece  of  tape.  If  it  is  not 
tied  too  tight  some  of  the  color  will  work  up  and 
down  the  folds,  under  the  tape,  and  give,  when  fin- 
ished, curious  wavy  effects.  (See  Fig.  7.) 
Tied  in  Small  Loops. — This  banding,  though  interest- 
ing and  useful,  differs  from  the  sharp  little  round  or 
diamond-shaped  rings  forming  the  patterns  in  the 
Rajput  or  Bagobo  textiles.  These  are  produced  by 
pressing  or  pulling  out  the  cloth  into  loops  or  bunches 
which  are  then  tied  tightly  round  and  round  with 
string  or  thread,  the  middle  of  the  loop  being  usually 
left  exposed  to  the  dyestuff,  so  as  to  form  a  colored 
centre. 

Very  small  loops  can  be  made,  as  mentioned  above, 
by  pressing  out  the  cloth  with  a  wooden  pin  (or  tooth- 


(a) — Tied   and  Ready  for  Dyeing 


(6) — Dyed,  Untied  and  Shaken  Out 


FIG.   6— SAMPLE  OF,  TIED   AND   DYED  WORK, 
"TIED    ON    ITSELF" 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  203 

pick)  and  tying  tightly  around  this,  leaving  in  the  pin 
until  after  the  dyeing  is  completed. 

Skilful  workers  can  tie  quite  small  loops  by  placing 
a  bead,  or  dried  pea,  or  piece  of  gravel  in  the  cloth 
and  tying  the  cloth  tightly  around  this.  It  is  best, 
always,  to  have  something  of  the  sort,  pin  or  bead,  to 
act  as  a  centre,  or  else  the  knot,  after  tying,  is  very  apt 
to  slip  off,  and  spoil  the  pattern. 

The  design  for  this  sort  of  work  should  be  care- 
fully planned  beforehand,  and  marked  out  on  the 
cloth  with  pencil  or  chalk.  For,  with  small  loops  like 
this,  the  interest  is  more  in  the  pattern  formed  by 
them  than  in  the  changes  and  contrasts  in  color  be- 
tween the  different  tied  parts  and  the  rest  of  the 
cloth. 

A  very  interesting  specimen  of  work  done  in 
this  way  by  Miss  Mary  Grey  is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
Tied  in  Large  Knots  and  Loops. — It  is  hard  for  a 
Western  craftsman  to  obtain  sharp,  well-defined 
knots  by  this  method,  of  a  diameter  of  less  than 
half  an  inch  or  so.  Usually,  indeed,  it  is  too 
much  of  a  bother  and  nuisance  to  try  any  knots 
covering  less  than  an  inch  and  a  half.  From  this 
size,  up  to  fifteen  and  twenty  inches  in  diameter,  will 
be  found  the  vast  majority  of  all  American  work.  The 
reason  is  very  simple.  The  trouble  of  tying  a  knot 
covering  five  inches  is  very  little  more  than  that  for 
a  half-inch  knot,  indeed  far  less  for  most  people, 
while  the  large  knot  produces  an  immediate  effect  not 
equalled  by  a  dozen  of  the  latter.  Furthermore,  with 
large  knots,  big  bold  designs  can  be  produced,  which, 


2O4  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

with  pleasant  and  skilfully  selected  colors,  give  results 
far  more  striking  and  effective  than  can  be  shown 
by  the  small  knots,  no  matter  how  carefully  carried 
out.  On  the  other  hand,  intricate  and  carefully 
planned  designs  can  be  worked  out  with  small  knots, 
which  cannot  be  attempted  with  the  large  ones. 

For  designs  with  large  knots,  beside  the  cloth, 
which  should  be  soft  and  free  from  dressing,  and  a 
ball  of  soft  thick  twine  or  better,  of  cheap  cotton 
binding  tape,  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide, 
it  is  well  to  have  a  supply  of  large  glass  beads,  of 
marbles  of  different  sizes,  and,  if  these  are  not  easy 
to  get,  of  pebbles,  beans,  hazelnuts,  and  the  like. 
These  are  not  always  to  be  used,  but  in  most  cases 
it  makes  a  more  interesting  contrast  to  have  the  centre 
of  the  tied  spot  come  out  dark,  with  the  lighter  parts, 
more  or  less  shaded,  around  it.  That  means  that  the 
centre  must  be  exposed  to  the  dyestuff  by  being 
stretched  out  over  a  marble  or  pebble,  while  the  parts 
around  it  are  tied  up.  And  the  tying,  too,  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  having  a  hard  centre  to  work  against. 

By  tying  around  one  marble  first,  and  then  putting 
in  another  and  tying  round  that,  a  series  of  concentric 
rings  will  be  formed,  the  black  rings  showing  where 
the  cloth,  covering  the  marble,  has  been  exposed,  and 
the  light-colored  part  showing  where  it  has  been  cov- 
ered by  the  tape  or  string. 

As  before,  the  design,  if  at  all  elaborate,  should  be 
marked  out  beforehand  on  the  open  cloth,  and  the 
parts  tied  in  accordingly.  Much  experience  is  re- 
quired to  know  just  how  tight  to  tie  the  tape  so  as 


FIG  7— SAMPLE  OF  TIED  AND  DYED  WORK,  "TIED  IN 
BA}s7DS,"  WITH  INCIDENTAL  KNOTS.  BY  MISS  MARY 
GREY 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  205 

to  get  a  desired  effect  with  each  particular  kind  of 
cloth,  and  each  class  of  dyestuffs.  In  general,  with 
small  knots  the  string  should  be  tied  very  tight,  or 
otherwise  no  effect  is  produced  at  all.  The  larger 
the  tied  parts,  however,  the  more  pains  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  cloth  folded  before  tying,  so  that 
some  of  the  color  may  work  down  through  the  folds 
past  the  tape,  and  thus  produce  shaded  effects,  which 
may  be  of  great  beauty  (see  Plate  IV,  Fig.  a).  Of 
course,  in  this,  much  depends  on  the  cloth;  a  thick 
heavy  calico  tying  with  difficulty,  but  not  letting  the 
dyestuff  soak  through;  while  soft  open  materials  like 
scrim  or  cheesecloth,  for  instance,  must  be  tied  much 
tighter,  or  the  color  will  work  through  so  much  as  to 
spoil  the  design. 

The  student  is  advised  to  practise,  from  the  start, 
tying  his  tape  with  a  slip  loop,  or  at  any  rate  a  bow 
knot,  and  not  with  a  fast  square  knot  each  time,  so 
as  to  save  trouble  and  bother  when  untying  later.  A 
skilful  craftsman  will  tie  quite  a  large  piece  of  cloth, 
in  an  interesting  and  fairly  complicated  design,  in  a 
few  minutes.  But  after  dyeing,  while  the  cloth  is 
still  wet,  and  the  tape  or  string  has  shrunk,  and  the 
knots  have  tightened,  it  is  often  more  trouble  to  untie, 
or  cut  it  open,  than  it  was  to  make  it,  and  there  is 
always  the  danger  of  cutting  holes  in  it.  A  little  pains 
in  laying  down  one  end  of  the  tape,  before  starting 
to  tie,  so  that,  when  the  whole  loop  is  tied  up,  the 
other  end  will  come  out  alongside  of  the  first  so  that 
it  can  be  joined  to  it  by  a  bow  knot,  will  save  any 
amount  of  time  and  vexation. 


206  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Sewed  and  Dyed  Work — Besides  protecting  the 
cloth  from  the  action  of  the  dyestuff  by  tying  string 
or  tape  around  it,  the  same  effect  can  be  produced 
by  sewing  up  certain  parts  of  it,  before  dyeing,  and 
then,  after  the  rest  has  been  colored,  and  the  loose 
dye-liquor  washed  off,  the  sewed-up  parts  can  be 
opened  and  pressed  into  shape. 

This  modification  of  the  process,  so  far  as  I  can 
learn,  is  not  practised  by  the  Rajputs  with  their 
chundries,  but  in  the  Benedict  collection  can  be  seen 
some  most  extraordinary  and  elaborate  pieces  of  dyed 
work  made  just  in  this  way.  The  Japanese,  also,  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  using  this  method,  and  sometimes 
they  produce  curious  zigzag  lines  by  taking  coarse 
stitches  across  the  cloth,  alternately,  first  to  one  side 
and  then  to  the  other  side  of  the  centre  line,  and  then 
drawing  the  thread  tight.  The  needle  is  often  used 
for  borders — for  straight  lines  can  easily  be  made  in 
soft  materials  (and  such  only  should  be  used  for  tied 
work)  by  hemming  the  cloth  with  strong  thread,  and 
then  drawing  it  up  close  and  tight  before  putting  it  in 
the  dye-bath.  The  development  of  this  branch  of  the 
process,  however,  belongs  properly  to  the  fair  sex. 
Dyeing  Process. — Now  for  the  dyeing  process.  Of 
course,  for  practise,  the  craftsman  will  use  cotton  as 
his  raw  material,  in  the  form  of  muslin,  cheesecloth, 
scrim,  or  best  of  all,  light  grades  of  mercerized  cotton, 
and  hence  will  use  the  various  cotton  dyestuffs.  The 
Salt  colors  are  hardly  advisable,  because  though  fast 
to  light  they  are  not  all  fast  to  washing  unless  well 
boiled  on,  and  that  means  that,  unless  tied  exfremely 


FIG.   8— FOLDING  THE   CLOTH 


FIG.   9— STARTING  TO  FIG.   10— CENTRE   PORTION 


TIE 


TIED 


TIED    AND   DYED   WORK 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  ^07 

fast  and  tight,  the  color  would  be  bound  to  penetrate, 
and  wipe  out  the  design.  The  Sulphur  colors  and  the 
Vat  colors  are  the  best  for  the  purpose — for  they  can 
be  dyed  cold  or  lukewarm,  without  injuring  the  fast- 
ness of  the  dye,  and  give  colors  fast  both  to  light  and 
to  washing.  In  general,  it  is  easier  to  get  even  shades 
with  the  Sulphur  colors,  and  their  shades  are  soft  and 
pleasing,  but  while  fast,  they  are  not  as  fast  as  the 
Vat  dyes,  and  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  decent  scarlet 
with  them.  The  skilful  dyer  will,  of  course,  select  his 
class  to  suit  the  shade  he  is  trying  to  get  and  also  to 
meet  the  requirements  about  fastness.  But,  in  general, 
he  will  use  the  Salt  colors  for  covering  and  shading  the 
patterns  produced  with  either  the  Sulphur  or  the  Vat 
dyes.  When  using  the  oxidation  dyes,  like  the  Sulphur 
or  Vat  colors,  plenty  of  time  must  be  given  for  the 
dyestuffs  to  oxidize  and  set  before  they  are  untied. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  directly  they  are  once  untied 
it  is  important  to  wash  off  the  loose  dye-liquor  from 
the  cloth,  and  especially  from  the  tied-in  portions,  as 
soon  as  possible  after  untying,  otherwise  some  dye- 
liquors  that  may  have  soaked  in  without  having  had 
a  chance  to  oxidize,  will,  when  exposed  to  air,  sud- 
denly fix  themselves  and  obscure  or  ruin  the  pattern. 
After  attaining  some  skill  in  this  process  the  crafts- 
man is  urged  to  try  it  on  more  important  materials 
like  silk.  Most  beautiful  effects  can  be,  and  are  being 
produced  by  this  means,  on  soft  delicate  scarfs  made 
of  Chinese  or  Indian  silks.  The  Acid  colors  are,  of 
course,  used  for  this,  and  as  they  take  so  readily  on 
silk,  the  possibilities  of  shading  and  over-shading  dif- 


ao8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ferent  portions  of  the  design,  or  of  adding  a  touch 
of  color  here  and  there  where  it  seems  desirable,  offer 
infinite  possibilities  to  an  artistic  workman.  The  com- 
binations of  color  that  can  be  produced  are  infinite, 
and  the  curious  blending  of  regularity  and  irregularity, 
in  the  designs  and  figures,  renders  it  a  most  attractive 
process  to  practise  with. 

One  great  attraction  about  it  is  the  sense  of  sus- 
pense, and  the  impossibility  of  telling  just  what  effect 
is  being  produced,  until  the  knots  are  all  untied,  and 
the  cloth  washed  off  and  opened  out. 

Another  attraction  is  the  feeling  of  working  all  the 
time  in  an  unexplored  or  very  partially  explored  coun- 
try. There  is  the  constant  chance  of  obtaining  at  any 
moment  effects  never  thought  of  before.  The  experi- 
menter is  always  trying  some  new  little  trick  in  tying, 
or  in  folding,  or  in  dyeing,  the  results  of  which  can 
never  be  foreseen  accurately,  and  which  are  always 
interesting  and  often  very  beautiful. 
Tied  and  Discharged  Work — One  day,  in  our  lab- 
oratory, some  experiments  were  made  which  resulted 
in  a  modification  of  this  process  which,  so  far  as  we 
know,  was  entirely  new,  and  which  presents  very  inter- 
esting possibilities,  to  say  the  least.  We  made  the 
experiment  of  dyeing  the  cloth  first,  and  then  tying 
it  up,  and  putting  it  in  a  bleaching  solution,  so  as  to 
discharge  the  color  everywhere  excepting  where  it  was 
protected  by  the  tying.  The  experiment  was  success- 
ful, resulting  (see  Plate  IV,  Fig.  b),  in  a  series  of 
dark  patterns  on  a  light  background.  All  kinds  of 
modifications  of  this  can  be  made.  For  instance,  the 


Tied  and  Dyed  Work  209 

cloth  can  be  dyed  with  a  mixture  of  two  or  three 
dyes,  some  of  which  are  fast  and  the  other  or  others 
can  be  discharged  by  the  chemical  used.  The  pattern 
thus  will  be  the  full  mixed  color,  say  brown,  against  a 
background  of  red  or  yellow  or  blue  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  important  thing  about  this  modification  is  to 
select  the  proper  bleaching  agent  to  act  on  the  par- 
ticular colors,  and  the  particular  kind  of  material, 
used.  Our  first  experiments  were  with  bleaching 
powder  (chloride  of  lime),  dissolved  in  water,  say  two 
tablespoon fuls  to  the  gallon,  with,  if  necessary,  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid  or  weak  sulphuric  acid  stirred 
into  it.  This  powerful  bleaching  agent  is  very  apt 
to  attack  the  cloth,  and  only  heavy  materials,  such  as 
scrim  or  heavy  calico  should  be  used  with  it.  But 
although  so  strong,  it  does  not  act  at  all  readily  on 
a  large  number  of  the  dyestuffs,  including  many  of 
the  Vat  colors.  Some  of  these,  like  the  Indanthrene 
colors,  are  not  affected  at  all,  Indigo  is  changed 
from  blue  to  a  brilliant  shade  of  yellow.  And  Thio 
Indigo  Red  B  produces  curious  shades  of  purple,  set- 
tling, where  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  the  bleach- 
ing agent,  to  orange. 

Later  we  repeated  the  experiments,  using  hydro- 
sulphite  of  soda,  say  two  tablespoonfuls  to  the  gallon 
of  warm  water,  as  a  discharge,  with  much  better  suc- 
cess. The  cloth  was  not  injured,  even  when  delicate 
materials  like  silk  and  light  poplins  were  used.  And 
the  great  majority  of  colors,  including  nearly  all  the 
best  Salt,  Sulphur,  and  Acid  dyes,  reduced  rapidly 
and  well.  The  Vat  dyes  will  reduce,  and,  in  the  pres- 


2io  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ence  of  caustic  soda,  will  dissolve  out  of  the  exposed 
cloth  almost  entirely,  but  it  is  hard  to  reduce  them  to 
white  in  this  way.  In  every  case  the  color,  after  re- 
duction, must  be  washed  at  once  in  warm  soap  and 
water,  or  else,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  the  color  may 
come  back  to  some  extent,  owing  to  oxidation. 

A  weak  bath  of  hydrosulphite  of  soda,  also,  should 
always  be  on  hand,  in  the  former  bleaching  process; 
for,  when  bleaching  powder  (chloride  of  lime)  or 
other  chlorine  compounds,  such  as  Javelle  water  or 
Labarraque's  solution,  are  used  for  destroying  the 
color,  their  further  action  can  be  stopped,  and  also 
the  offensive  smell  removed,  by  dipping  the  bleached 
material  into  a  so-called  antichlor,  like  this  hydro- 
sulphite. 

This  subject  of  discharge  is  dealt  with  more  at 
length  in  a  future  chapter. 


(a)    EXAMPLE  OF  TIED   AND  DYED   WORK 


r> 


(b)    EXAMPLE  OF  TIED  AND  DISCHARGED  WORK 
PLATE  IV. 


CHAPTER  XV 
STENCILS  AND  STENCILLING 

DIRECT   APPLICATION   OF   COLORS 

HISTORY — During  the  last  few  years  a  great 
deal  of  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  manu- 
facture and  use  of  stencils  for  decorating  tex- 
tiles, not  only  by  craft  workers  of  different  kinds,  but 
also  by  art  teachers  in  private  and  public  schools. 

The  art  is  not  a  modern  one,  even  in  this  country, 
for  I  have  seen  and  worked  with  a  series  of  very  in- 
teresting stencils  cut  in  brass,  which  were  owned  in 
Philadelphia  by  the  famous  old  physician,  Dr.  Benja- 
min Rush,  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  were  used 
in  his  family  for  marking  linen,  as  well  as  for  decorat- 
ing homespuns  and  paper. 

The  real  home  of  the  art,  however,  is  Japan,  where, 
for  over  three  hundred  years,  stencils  have  been  in 
common  use,  largely  replacing  the  wood  blocks  used 
in  other  countries,  for  decorating  the  common  cotton 
goods,  towels,  head  coverings,  and  the  like  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  also  for  ornamenting,  where  embroidery 
was  not  desired,  the  beautiful  silks  and  satins  of  the 
wealthy. 

Ever  since  Japan  has  been  opened  to  the  world 
travelers  have  been  telling  wonderful  stories  of 

311 


212  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  great  skill  of  the  natives  in  this  beautiful  art.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  as  soon  as  a  child  is  born 
it  is  given  a  nickname,  and  with  it,  as  a  sort  of  totem, 
a  design — a  flower,  for  instance,  for  a  girl — a  tree 
or  an  animal  for  a  boy — and  the  like.  This  design, 
worked  out  carefully,  after  due  criticism  from  all  the 
family  elders,  is  drawn  on  brown  paper  and  then  care- 
fully cut  out  with  a  sharp  knife  by  some  member  or 
friend  of  the  family.  And  this  stencil  is  then  sent  to 
the  local  dyer  to  be  used  in  dyeing  the  infant's  clothes. 
This  same  design,  or  a  modification  of  it,  is  attached 
to  the  person  through  life,  as  his  or  her  own  private 
pattern,  and  whenever  new  clothes  are  needed  they 
are  dyed  after  this  same  pattern. 

Japanese  Stencils — Paper. — It  is  a  common  fact  that 
the  very  first  thing  noticeable  about  Japanese  sten- 
cils, whether  brought  from  some  dyehouse  in  the  in- 
terior, or  whether  made  more  or  less  mechanically,  for 
the  American  market,  to  be  sold  to  students  or  crafts- 
men, is  the  quality  of  the  paper.  It  is  thin,  hardly 
heavier  than  ordinary  writing  paper,  but  exceedingly 
tough  and  strong,  and  cuts  very  easily,  without  tear- 
ing. It  can  occasionally  be  obtained  from  importers 
in  sheets,  and  even  better  qualities  can  be  secured,  from 
among  a  mass  of  old  stencils,  by  finding  some  which 
have  been  only  partially  cut  or  used  up,  and  carefully 
cutting  out  from  them  the  unused  portions  where 
these  are  large  enough  for  the  purpose. 
Knives. — In  cutting  stencil  designs  our  American 
practice  is  to  use  a  sharp  penknife,  or  a  Sloyd  knife, 
or,  as  happens  occasionally  with  some  of  my  friends 


FIG.    IS—JAPANESE    STEXCIL    KNIFE 

I 


FIG.    14— JAPANESE    STEXCIL    BRUSHES 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  213 

with  amiable  professional  husbands,  a  surgeon's 
scalpel.  None  of  these,  however,  compare  for  neat- 
ness, accuracy,  and  ease  and  comfort  of  manipulation, 
with  the  very  simple  but  extremely  effective  little  Jap- 
anese knives  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  knife  blade,  of 
very  highly  tempered  steel,  is  two  or  three  inches  long 
and  fits  between  two  flattened  plates  of  wood,  tied  to- 
gether tightly  at  the  bottom  but  springing  apart  a 
little  toward  the  top,  as  a  handle.  This  little  spring  of 
the  handle  is  most  satisfactory.  And  as  the  blade, 
which  is  triangular  and  sharply  pointed,  is  worn  away 
gradually  by  the  constant  grinding  and  sharpening 
it  must  receive,  the  steel  can  be  pushed  forward  from 
between  the  two  halves  of  the  handle,  until  the  proper 
length  is  reached. 

Cutting. — The  Japanese  draw  their  designs  on 
paper  with  India  ink,  and  then,  with  incredible  swift- 
ness and  accuracy,  the  lines  are  cut,  by  pushing  the 
knife  blade,  held  with  the  back  downwards,  away 
from  the  workman,  and  through  the  paper  which  is 
placed  flat  on  a  piece  of  wood  or  small  tray,  with 
depressions  in  it  half  an  inch  or  so  deep,  to  avoid  the 
danger  and  bother  of  running  the  knife  point  into  the 
wood. 

American  Practice. — Our  way  differs  somewhat.  The 
design  is  usually  drawn  on  a  separate  piece  of  white 
paper,  and  filled  in — in  black — with  India  ink.  This  is 
then  placed  underneath  the  stencil  paper  which,  espe- 
cially if  it  has  been  oiled  or  paraffined,  is  translucent 
enough  to  show  the  pattern  through,  so  that  the  out- 
line can  be  drawn  with  a  sharp  pencil.  The  outline 


214  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

can  also  be  made  by  tracing  the  design  down  on  the 
stencil  paper  with  the  help  of  a  piece  of  carbon  copying 
paper.  This  is  laid  between  the  design  and  the  stencil 
paper  and  then  the  outline  of  the  design  is  carefully 
traced  with  a  sharp-pointed  pencil.  From  these  out- 
lines it  is  easy,  with  a  sharp  stencil  knife,  to  cut  out 
the  design,  although  it  is  customary  with  us  to  cut 
toward  the  body  with  the  point  of  the  knife  down, 
upon  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  or  soft  wood  so  as 
not  to  dull  it  too  rapidly. 

Ties  and  Stops. — When  stencilling  is  taught  in 
America  great  pains  are  taken  to  show  how  the  pattern 
must  be  planned  and  cut  out,  so  as  to  have  plenty  of 
"  ties  "  or  "  stops  "  in  the  right  places,  so  as  to  hold 
the  stencil  together.  For  instance,  in  making  a  stencil 
of  a  large  capital  O,  the  student  should  be  warned  that, 
if  the  paper  was  cut  all  the  way  around,  it  would  leave 
a  big  hole;  for  the  central  piece,  which  would  form 
the  centre  of  the  finished  letter,  would  drop  out,  and 
could  not  be  kept  in  place.  Accordingly,  the  stencil 
would  have  to  be  cut  carefully,  leaving  at  least  two 
"  bridges  "  or  little  "  tie  pieces  "  of  paper,  one  proba- 
bly at  the  top,  and  the  other  at  the  bottom  of  the  O, 
these  being  the  narrowest  points,  which  would  hold  the 
centre  in  place,  and  thus  complete  the  figure.  Indeed, 
if  these  little  "  steps  "  or  "  bridges  "  of  paper  should 
be  left  out,  or  become  torn  or  broken,  the  stencil 
would  be  useless.  But  a  situation  like  this  has  little 
or  no  terror  for  the  Japanese,  at  any  rate  when  work- 
ing for  their  home  trade.  Their  stencils  cut  for  the 
American  market  while  always  interesting,  and  often 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  215 

charming,  are  cut,  as  ours  are,  from  one  piece  of 
paper,  with  stops  in  the  exposed  places.  But  the  sten- 
cils that  have  been  used,  or  cut  for  use,  over  there, 
show  a  very  different  state  of  affairs.  All  of  the 
large,  handsome  ones,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
smaller,  less  artistic,  and  less  valuable  ones  are  made, 
with  almost  inconceivable  skill  and  patience,  in  dupli- 
cate. And  the  two  parts  are  afterwards  pasted  to- 
gether with  absolute  accuracy,  but  with  a  layer  of  fine 
hair,  supposedly  human  hair,  between  them.  These 
hairs,  laid  irregularly  but  evenly,  make  a  sort  of  net- 
work which  ties  together  all  portions  of  the  stencil, 
no  matter  how  disconnected  with  the  rest,  or,  as  we 
would  say,  "  in  the  air,"  it  might  be. 

So,  too,  they  are  in  the  habit  of  sewing  in,  with  the 
finest  of  hair  or  of  single  threads  of  fine  silk,  loose 
pieces  or  broken  pieces,  and  thus  holding  them  in 
shape. 

It  is  interesting  to  study  some  of  them  closely  and 
see  how  neatly  this  tying  is  done  and  how  little  the 
time  of  these  unknown  workmen  must  be  valued  at. 
For  apart  from  the  large  picture  stencils  which,  of 
course,  would  be  worth  taking  a  great  deal  of  pains 
with,  some  of  the  simplest  and  most  ordinary  of  their 
native  stencils  are  not  only  cut  but  tied  in,  with  ex- 
traordinary skill.  One  of  these,  valued  here  at  but 
a  few  cents,  consisted  of  a  background  of  small  figures 
in  shape  and  size  very  much  like  a  capital  O  of  the 
type  of  this  page.  The  stencil  measures  some  eighteen 
by  ten  inches,  and  there  must  be  between  fifteen  hun- 
dred and  two  thousand  of  these  O  figures  on  it. 


216  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Some  few  of  these  are  now  imperfect,  but  with  the 
exception  of  a  dozen  or  two,  every  single  one  of  all 
these  has  had  the  centre  cut  out,  and  then  sewed  into 
place  again,  from  the  sides,  so  as  to  be  in  the  exact 
centre,  without  a  single  "  stop  "  or  "  tie  "  on  the  whole 
paper. 

Brushes. — With  stencils  so  very  delicately  made,  it  is 
evident  that  our  crude  American  style  of  rubbing  in  the 
color,  with  heavy  hands  and  stiff  bristle  brushes,  would 
not  be  much  of  a  success !  About  one  good  rub  with 
a  brush  like  that,  and  every  hair  in  sight  would  be 
torn  and  broken,  and  what  was  a  minute  before  a 
work  of  art  would  be  a  torn  mass  of  brown  paper. 

Whether  any  of  our  American  craftsmen  have  light 
enough  hands  to  use,  successfully,  a  fine  Japanese  sten- 
cil is  doubtful.  Personally,  I  could  no  more  stencil 
six  inches  with  any  of  them  without  ruining  it  or 
making  a  mess  of  the  cloth  than  I  could  in  a  year  cut, 
without  tearing,  six  square  inches  of  any  one  of  a 
score  of  cheap  and  ordinary  Japanese  stencils  which  I 
own,  either  presented  to  me  or  sold  at  a  very  low 
price,  as  being  really  too  insignificant  in  value  to 
amount  to  anything. 

But  at  any  rate,  the  Japanese  do  not  use  a  stiff 
bristle  brush.  Their  brushes,  in  general,  are  of  two 
sorts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  One  is  a  sort  of  pad,  often 
quite  large,  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  made  of 
rabbit's  fur,  tightly  bound  together  with  cord  or  wire, 
and  with  a  bundle  of  small  sticks  spreading  out  to 
enclose  the  pad,  and  drawn  together  and  tied  above, 
at  the  upper  end,  in  a  sort  of  pyramid. 


FIG.   15— JAPANESE   STENCIL,   SHOWING  HOLES   PUNCHED 
BY  HAND  TOOL 


FIG.     i  6— J  A  P  A  N  E  S  E 

STENCIL,  EXACT  SIZE, 
SHOWING  USE  OF 
STOPS 


FIG.  i  7— J  A  P  A  N  E  S  E 
STENCIL,  EXACT  SIZE, 
SHOWING  USE  OF 
SEWING  INSTEAD  OF 
STOPS 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  217 

The  other  variety  is  a  true  brush,  of  a  more  ordi- 
nary shape,  like  a  flat  paint  brush,  but  also  made  of 
the  very  softest  and  finest,  most  velvety  hairs  imagina- 
ble, laid  extremely  close  together,  and  compressed 
tightly  between  the  two  halves  of  the  handle.  These 
can  be  obtained  occasionally  from  the  dealers  at  rea- 
sonable prices,  and  are  delightful  to  work  with.  Only, 
being  meant  for  the  soft,  light  touches  of  their  native 
workmen,  they  do  not  last  long  when  rubbed  down  on 
the  cloth  as  is  our  practise.  Their  life  is  considerably 
increased  by  pouring  some  molten  beeswax  into  the 
back  of  both  goods  and  brushes  with  a  batik  pot,  or 
Tjanting,  which  prevents  the  fine  hairs  from  pulling 
out  until  the  brush  is  all  worn  to  pieces. 
The  Care  of  Stencils. — A  word  may  here  be  said  about 
taking  care  of  stencils,  after  they  have  been  cut  or 
purchased.  They  should  always  be  used  on  one  side, 
and  carefully  wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth,  directly 
after  using.  They  should  always  be  kept  flat,  never 
folded.  And,  when  using  them,  it  must  always  be  re- 
membered that  the  ties  or  bridges  are  the  weak  spots, 
and  that  breaking  or  tearing  them,  as  a  rule,  will  spoil 
the  stencil.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  to  mend  them  by 
sewing,  or  sometimes  by  patching  with  tape.  But  this 
is  always  troublesome,  and  with  well  paraffined  sten- 
cils is  rarely  satisfactory. 

The  Different  Methods  of  Using  Stencils. — In  this 
country,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  common  way 
in  which  stencils  have  been  used  is  by  brushing  through 
them,  on  to  the  cloth,  oil  paints  thinned  with  turpentine 
or  gasoline.  As  previously  explained,  in  the  chapter  on 


2i 8  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

feather  dyeing,  this  is  not  very  satisfactory.  For  when 
paint  is  sufficiently  thick  to  adhere  well  to  the  cloth, 
it  is  apt  to  look  stiff  and  shiny.  And  when  it  is  ap- 
plied so  thin  that  the  structure  of  the  cloth  shows 
through,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  not  fast  to  washing  or  even 
to  rubbing.  Various  varnishes  are  on  the  market 
which  help  considerably  to  make  the  paint  fast,  but 
even  then  the  results  are  not  nearly  so  durable  as  when 
the  proper  dyestuffs  are  used. 

The  Japanese  practice  is  exclusively  with  dyes,  and 
they  have  worked  out  processes  which  are  perfectly 
satisfactory,  so  that  their  simple,  cheap,  stencilled  tow- 
els can  stand  washing  indefinitely  without  loss  of 
color.  And  by  the  use  of  modern  dyestuffs  there  is 
no  insuperable  obstacle  to  our  doing  just  as  well  as 
they. 

The  use  of  stencils  gives  an  excellent  opportunity 
to  illustrate  the  three  general  methods  of  coloring 
fabrics,  which,  as  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter,  con- 
sist of : 

Direct  application  of  color. 

Resist,  and 

Discharge. 

The  last  two  of  these  will  be  reserved  for  the  next 

chapter. 

Direct  Application  of  Color — In  this  intricate  work 

it    will    generally    be    found    almost    a    necessity    to 

apply  colors  through  a  stencil  in  the  form  of  a  paste, 

for  when  the  coloring  liquid  is  thin  it  is  very  apt  to 

run  under  the  edges  of  the  paper  and  spoil  the  design. 


FIG.    18— JAPANESE    STENCILS,    EXACT    SIZE,    SHOWING 
USE    OF   BOTH    STOPS   AND    NET 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  219 

It  is  best  to  thicken  it  with  a  little  "  gum  dragon/* 
a  carefully  prepared  paste  of  gum  tragacanth,  to 
which  the  coloring  matter,  and  any  reagents  that  are 
needed,  can  be  added.  The  nature  of  the  reagents 
and  the  class  of  dyestuffs  used  depends,  of  course, 
upon  the  kind  of  material  to  be  stencilled. 

(a)  Leather — While  not  very  often  used,  students 
interested  in  leather  work  will  find  a  carefully  de- 
signed and  neatly  cut  stencil  a  most  useful  medium 
for  obtaining  interesting  and  beautiful  effects.     The 
leather,  whether  bark-  or  alum-tanned,  should  be  care- 
fully dampened,  and  then  stencilled  with  a  paste  con- 
taining Basic  colors  dissolved  with  a  drop  of  acetic 
acid.     On  drying,  the  leather  should  be  finished  as 
usual.    The  Acid  colors  are  not  nearly  so  satisfactory 
for  stencilling,  although,  as  already  mentioned,  they 
are  often  advantageous  for  dyeing,  rather  than  stain- 
ing, leather  fast  colors. 

(b)  Silk — Silk  may  easily  be  stencilled  provided  the 
pattern  is  not  expected  to  be  fast  to  washing. 

i.  Acid  Colors. — These  dyes,  mixed  with  a  few 
drops  of  formic  or  acetic  acid,  will  color  it  well,  but 
to  make  the  dyestuff  penetrate  it  is  advisable  to  steam 
the  goods.  This  can  be  done  with  a  teakettle  provided 
with  a  wing  tip  for  the  spout,  made  of  tin,  or  by  heat- 
ing a  flatiron  or  iron  plate  very  hot,  and  pressing  the 
stencilled  goods  back  down  against  it,  with  a  damp 
cloth  in  between.  The  hot  steam  thus  produced,  pass- 
ing through  the  goods,  melts  the  paste  and  drives  the 
color  down  into  the  fibres  and  sets  it  there,  so  that, 


22O  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

later,  the  stencilled  goods  will  stand  light  rinsing  in 
lukewarm  soap  and  water  without  running. 

2.  Salt  Colors. — Faster  results  can  be  obtained,  on 
silk,  with  a  paste  containing  salt  dyes,  with  a  drop  or 
two  of  acetic  acid,  provided  the  silk  is  thoroughly 
steamed  afterwards. 

3.  Basic  Colors. — Basic  dyes  may  be  used  on  silk  as  on 
wool,  leather,  or  any  other  animal  fibres  for  direct 
application,  the  dyestuff  dissolved  with  a  drop  of  acetic 
acid,  being  added  to  the  paste,  and  then  brushed  in 
and,  preferably,  lightly  steamed  to  sink  the  paste  down 
into  the  fibres.     These  dyes,  however,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  are  not  fast  to  light,  and  applied  in  this 
way  are  not  fast,  either,  to  washing.    By  adding  some 
reagents  to  the  paste,  however,  a  Basic  stencil  paste  can 
be  formed  which  gives  colors  on  silk  which  will  stand 
active  scrubbing  excellently. 

The  Basic  Stencil  Paste  is  prepared  by  mixing  with 
the  paste  a  solution  containing  the  Basic  color,  dis- 
solved in  acetic  acid,  and  also  containing  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  tannic  acid.  As  long  as  there  is 
free  acetic  acid  present  in  this  mixture  the  color  re- 
mains in  solution,  but  directly  the  acid  is  driven  off, 
an  insoluble  compound  remains,  formed  by  the  com- 
bination of  the  tannic  acid  with  the  color  base.  This 
happens  on  steaming,  and  the  insolubility  of  the  prod- 
uct is  still  further  increased  by  passing  it  through  a 
weak  bath  or  wetting  it  with  a  weak  solution  (half  a 
teaspoon ful  to  the  quart)  of  tartar  emetic. 

Accordingly,  to  use  this  stencil  paste  on  silk  or, 
indeed,  on  cotton,  the  slightly  dampened  goods  are 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  221 

stencilled  with  the  paste,  thinned  if  desired  with  water 
and  a  little  acetic  acid.  Then  directly  they  are  dry 
enough  so  as  not  to  run  they  are  well  steamed,  then 
the  gum  rinsed  off  with  a  little  warm  water,  and  the 
goods  moistened  with  the  tartar  emetic.  After  this 
they  can  be  washed  with  soap  with  little  or  no  danger 
of  running. 

(c)  Wool. — Wool  is  rarely  stencilled,  although  sten- 
cil patterns  can  be  produced  very  well  on  it  by  using 
acid  colors  with  a  little  oxalate  of  ammonia  (about  the 
same  amount  as  the  dyestuff),  dissolved  in  a  drop  or 
two  of  water,  and  thickened  with  a  little  gum  traga- 
canth.    When  this  paste  is  applied  with  a  brush,  and 
then  dried,  the  result  is  not  fast  at  all,  merely  a  dis- 
tinct stain;  but  if  steamed  at  once  the  oxalate  of 
ammonia  decomposes,  leaving  oxalic  acid,  which,  com- 
bining with  the  color  and  melting  down  with  it  in  the 
fibres,  makes  the  dyestuff  adhere  quite  firmly. 

(d)  Cotton  and  Linen — It  is  much  more  difficult  to 
stencil  satisfactorily  on  vegetable  goods,  such  as  cotton 
and  linen,  than  on  the  animal  fibres  above  mentioned, 
because  they  are  expected  to  stand  very  much  more 
severe  treatment.    The  fastness  to  washing  needed  for 
a  handsome  silk  scarf  is  far  less  than  for  a  cotton 
shirtwaist,  or  linen  table-cover,  and  unless  the  results 
on  the  latter  are  at  least  as  fast  as  the  average  calico 
print,  the  result  is  considered  a  failure. 

There  are  three  classes  of  dyes  which  can  be  used 
in  this  connection,  the  Basic  dyes,  the  Sulphur  dyes, 
and  the  Indigo  or  Vat  dyes.  The  Basic  stencil  pastes 
have  just  been  described,  in  connection  with  silk  sten- 


222  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

cilling,  and  when  carefully  used  they  will  give  very 
fair  results  on  cotton,  and  even  on  linen,  provided  it 
is  free  from  dressing,  and  is  not  too  coarse  and  thick. 
It  is  hardly  worth  while  trying  to  fasten  Basic  dyes, 
by  hand  stencilling,  upon  such  materials  as  heavy, 
coarse  Russian  crash,  for  instance,  such  as  friends 
and  students  have  frequently  brought  in  to  experiment 
with.  But  for  light,  thin  materials,  and  especially  for 
mercerized  goods,  poplins  and  the  like,  it  is  possible, 
with  a  little  practice,  to  get  effects  that  are  fast  to 
ordinary  washing. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  method  of  stencilling  has 
certain  disadvantages.  It  is  rather  complicated,  need- 
ing the  use  of  a  fixing  bath  of  tartar  emetic,  a  very 
active  poison,  by  the  way,  although  more  uncomforta- 
ble than  actually  dangerous  when  taken  by  mistake 
in  one  dose,  because  of  the  severe  vomiting  it  pro- 
duces almost  immediately.  And  then,  too,  the  results 
at  best  are  not  really  fast  to  light,  and  in  the  case  of 
light  pinks  and  yellows  are  distinctly  fugitive. 
Vat  Color  Stencil  Pastes. — Many  experiments  have 
been  made  in  our  laboratory  to  work  out  a  satis- 
factory stencil  paste,  so  that  Indigo  and  other  Vat  dyes 
could  be  applied,  simply  and  easily,  with  no  more  diffi- 
culty than  the  usual  one  of  brushing  the  paste  in  care- 
fully, and  then  steaming  as  soon  as  possible.  In  these 
stencil  pastes  the  Indigo  and  the  other  Vat  dyes  are  re- 
duced with  the  aid  of  caustic  alkali  and  hydrosulphite 
before  being  mixed  with  the  paste,  and  some  special 
precautions  are  taken  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
oxidation  of  the  dyestuff  before  it  gets  well  into  the 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  223 

fibre.  But,  as  the  ordinary  hydrosulphite  is  apt  to 
decompose  on  standing,  especially  when  it  is  wet,  it  is 
always  best,  just  before  using,  to  mix  well  with  the 
paste  a  little  fresh  reducing  agent,  dissolved  in  a  drop 
of  hot  water.  The  reducing  agent  that  should  be  used 
for  this  purpose  is  not  the  ordinary  hydrosulphite  of 
soda,  used  for  vat  dyeing,  but  a  compound  of  sodium 
hydrosulphite,  "  Stencil  Salt,"  which  has  the  property 
of  keeping  better  than  the  other,  and  also  of  not  acting 
as  a  reducing  agent  until  it  is  heated.  This,  then,  is 
stirred  into  the  Vat  color  stencil  paste,  just  before 
using,  and  then,  when  the  goods  are  steamed,  the  heat 
and  moisture  combined  will  enable  it  to  reduce  the 
color,  which  will  be  carried  into  the  fibres  in  a  reduced 
and  dissolved  condition.  After  steaming  well  for  five 
minutes  the  color  should  be  developed  by  a  bath  in 
hot  soapsuds,  after  which  the  goods  should  be  rinsed 
and  dried.  With  care  this  process  will  give  very  satis- 
factory results,  perfectly  fast  to  both  light  and  wash- 
ing, after  the  first  loose  color  has  been  washed  off. 

The  indigo  stencil  paste,  as  prepared,  will  keep  well 
reduced  for  quite  a  long  time,  and  it  is  frequently 
quite  unnecessary  to  add  any  fresh  reducing  agent  to 
it.  If,  when  taken  from  the  tube  or  bottle,  it  looks 
yellow  or  yellowish  green,  it  can  be  applied  at  once 
to  the  cloth,  and,  if  steamed  just  as  soon  as  possible, 
it  will  generally  penetrate  quite  satisfactorily.  With 
the  other  colors  of  the  series,  however,  it  is  hard  to 
tell  by  the  color  whether  they  are  reduced  or  not,  and 
hence  the  fresh  reducing  agent,  Stencil  Salt,  should 
always  be  added  to  them.  The  cloth  for  stencilling 


224  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

with  these  pastes,  as  with  the  Basic  pastes,  should  not 
be  too  thick  or  heavy,  and  must  be  washed  quite  free 
from  dressing,  or  the  result  will  not  be  satisfactory. 
It  should  also  be  slightly  dampened,  if  only  by  holding 
over  boiling  water  for  a  moment  or  two,  so  as  to  help 
the  color  to  penetrate. 

Sulphur  Stencil  Paste. — We  have  also  found  very 
satisfactory  results  from  pastes  made  with  one  of  the 
Sulphur  colors,  dissolved  in  a  little  sodium  sulphide 
and  sodium  carbonate,  and  stiffened  with  a  little 
gum.  The  presence  of  a  reducing  agent  helps  to  keep 
the  color  reduced ;  and,  when  quickly  applied  and  rap- 
idly steamed,  the  colors  will  sink  into  the  fibre  and 
adhere  firmly. 

The  chief  drawback  with  these  pastes  is  the  lack 
of  a  good  red. 

Black  Stencil  Paste — So  far  as  can  be  learned,  the 
Japanese  use  for  their  stencilling  an  Indigo  paste  made 
on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  one  just  de- 
scribed. Besides  this,  which  is  a  very  favorite  color 
of  theirs,  they  use  a  red  and  also  a  very  full  black 
dye,  both  of  which  are  fast  to  washing  and  to  light. 

What  the  composition  of  these  last  pastes  may  be 
it  is  hard  to  tell.  In  our  laboratory  we  have  made 
careful  experiments  on  the  subject  of  stencilling  black, 
and  have  worked  out  a  method  that  we  consider  satis- 
factory by  the  use  of  a  modification  of  the  well-known 
Aniline  Black  process. 

Aniline  Black. — It  was  noticed,  early  in  the  history  of 
dyestuffs,  that  if  aniline  was  mixed  with  strong  ox- 
idizing agents,  and  carefully  heated,  it  would  undergo 


FIG. 


io— LARGE  AND  HANDSOME  JAPANESE 
STENCIL,   SHOWING  USE  OF  NET 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  225 

a  series  of  color  changes  resulting,  finally,  in  black. 
This  color,  so-called  "  Aniline  Black,"  was  at  one 
time  manufactured  and  used  for  a  black  pigment;  but 
it  was  soon  recognized  that  its  real  value  would  only 
be  developed  when  it  could  be  formed,  in  the  fibre 
itself,  by  the  oxidation  of  aniline  or  some  compound 
of  aniline  upon  the  fibres.  After  many  years  of  ex- 
perimenting this  problem  was  solved,  and  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  the  blacks  most  used  on  cotton  and 
linen  by  the  calico  printers,  as  well  as  by  the  dyers, 
have  been  one  or  another  of  the  forms  of  Aniline 
Black. 

The  principle  on  which  these  processes  are  based 
is  as  follows:  The  aniline,  usually  in  the  form  of 
aniline  salt  (aniline  hydrochloride),  is  mixed  with  an 
oxidizing  agent  like  chlorate  of  soda,  and  also  with 
a  small  amount  of  a  third  substance  which,  on  steam- 
ing, acts  as  a  carrier  of  oxygen  between  the  aniline 
and  the  chlorate.  This  substance,  often  called  a  cata- 
lytic agent,  because  at  the  end  of  the  operation  it  re- 
mains unchanged,  although  it  has  accomplished  a  large 
amount  of  work,  may  be  one  of  a  number  of  com- 
pounds as,  for  instance,  a  salt  of  the  metal  vanadium, 
prussiate  of  potash,  a  salt  of  copper,  etc.,  each  one 
having  special  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  its 
own.  • 

Now,  almost  any  printing  paste  properly  composed 
so  as  to  give  a  good  clear  Aniline  Black  on  steaming, 
(the  formulae  can  be  obtained  from  any  good  book 
on  calico  printing,  or  from  any  competent  dyeing 
chemist),  will  generally  work  fairly  well  as  a  stencil 


226  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

paste — as  long  as  it  is  fresh.  But  even  when  kept 
from  the  air  as  far  as  possible,  in  a  tight  tube,  it 
decomposes  on  standing  and  becomes  very  unsatisfac- 
tory. Besides  this,  there  is  always  a  difficulty  with 
these  regular  pastes  on  account  of  the  irregular  and 
uncertain  steaming  process  that  can  be  used  by  the 
average  craftsman.  In  a  calico  print  works,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  steam  chest,  the  proportion  of  steam 
in  it,  and  the  length  of  passage  of  the  cloth  through 
it,  are  all  accurately  determined,  and  kept  at  the  exact 
points  necessary  for  the  best  results  with  any  given 
formula.  But  with  irregular  steaming,  unless  very 
great  care  is  taken  with  the  formula,  there  is  always 
a  danger  of  "  tendering "  and  burning  the  fibre,  if 
too  much  oxidizing  agent  is  present,  or  of  not  devel- 
oping a  full  black,  but  a  dark  green  color,  if  the 
oxidizing  agent  is  not  active  enough. 

We  have,  after  a  great  deal  of  experimenting, 
worked  out  a  formula  which,  with  reasonable  care  in 
steaming,  will  give  a  good  full  black,  absolutely  fast 
to  light  and  washing,  upon  cotton,  linen,  and  silk, 
without  any  tendering  of  the  cloth.  And,  by  dividing 
up  the  component  parts  into  two  separate  pastes,  which 
are  kept  in  separate  tubes  or  bottles,  and  are  mixed 
together  only  when  about  to  be  used,  we  have  gone 
far  to  solve  the  important  problem  of  keeping. 

The  use  of  this  Black  stencil  paste  is  very  simple. 
It  comes  in  two  tubes  or  bottles  marked  A  and  B. 

When  the  cloth,  free  from  dressing  and  slightly 
dampened,  is  all  ready,  equal  amounts  are  taken  from 
each  of  the  two  tubes,  and  mixed  together  in  a  watch- 


Stencils  and  Stencilling  227 

glass  or  small  glass  or  porcelain  dish  with,  if  neces- 
sary, a  drop  of  water  to  soften  them  if  they  have  dried 
up  at  all.  This  mixed  paste  is  then  brushed  on  to,  and 
into,  the  cloth,  and,  as  soon  as  dry,  is  steamed  as  before 
described.  The  black  color  will  develop  almost  imme- 
diately, and,  after  a  few  minutes'  steaming,  will  be 
found  fast  to  hard  washing  as  well  as  to  light. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

RESIST  AND  DISCHARGE   STEN- 
CILLING 

TRAVELERS  in  Japan  inform  us  that,  with 
their  customary  ingenuity,  the  natives  there 
have  developed  the  use  of  stencils  to  a  point 
which  quite  matches  the  best  achievements  of  our  mod- 
ern calico  printers,  even  though  backed  by  good  dyeing 
chemists.  When  a  young  lady  there  wishes  a  new 
dress,  she  will  draw,  perhaps  with  the  help  of  her 
best  young  man,  and  certainly  with  the  advice  and 
criticism  of  her  family,  her  favorite  design  on  a  piece 
of  brown  paper,  cut  it  out  in  stencil  form,  and  send 
it  to  the  local  dyer,  with  the  proper  amount  of  calico 
or  silk  or  what  not,  to  be  properly  applied. 

Now,  in  most  cases  the  dyer  is  instructed  to  put  the 
pattern  on  the  cloth  in  colors,  blue,  black,  red,  yellow, 
or  mixed  shades,  and  this  he  does,  much  as  my  readers 
were  taught  to  do  in  the  last  chapter,  by  painting  on 
a  stencil  paste,  to  be  fixed  later  by  steaming. 

The  Japanese  dyer,  by  the  way,  has  a  great  advan- 
tage over  the  American  craftsman  in  his  steaming  ap- 
paratus. No  matter  how  small  his  place,  or  how  poor 
his  equipment,  he  always  is  provided  with  a  neat  and 
satisfactory  steam  chest,  consisting  of  a  copper  pot 

228 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling       229 

set  in  a  brick  or  stone  fireplace,  to  hold  the  boiling 
water,  and  above  it,  a  close-fitting  box  with  sides  made 
of  lacquered  paper,  double  jacketed  to  avoid  con- 
densation in  cold  weather,  which  can  be  kept  full  of 
dry  steam  for  hours  at  a  time,  and  in  which  the  sten- 
cilled goods  can  be  steamed  thoroughly  and  well  with- 
out fear  of  spoiling  them. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  color  is  to  be  applied  in 
another  way;  the  cloth  itself  is  to  be  colored  blue  or 
red  or  black,  and  the  pattern  is  to  be  light,  either  pure 
white  or  some  light  color  on  a  dark  background. 

The  Japanese  dyer,  from  time  immemorial,  has 
known  how  to  do  this  properly,  by  means  of  a 
"  Resist."  He  prepares  a  resist  paste  which  he  care- 
fully applies  to  the  cloth  through  the  stencil.  This  is 
allowed  to  dry,  the  cloth  is  then  dyed,  and,  after  the 
color  is  properly  fixed,  it  is  all  thoroughly  scrubbed, 
and  the  paste,  washing  off,  leaves  the  cloth,  under- 
neath, in  its  original  color. 

Resist  Stencil  Paste. — This  process  of  resist,  an- 
cient as  it  is,  is  used  in  Japan  to  this  day, 
and  many,  indeed  most,  of  the  stencilled  towels  and 
piece  goods  that  come  from  there  are  done  in  this 
way.  It  has  the  advantages,  especially  for  the  crafts- 
man, over  the  Direct  Color  process,  in  that  the  color, 
being  applied  in  a  dye-bath,  can  be  fixed  readily  and 
uniformly,  without  the  bother  and  uncertainty  of  a 
steaming  process.  Through  a  friend,  a  well-known 
dyeing  chemist,  who  has  travelled  in  Japan,  I  learned 
the  composition  of  the  Japanese  Resist  Paste.  They 
mix  rice  flour,  wheat  bran,  and  a  little  quicklime  (the 


230  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

calcium  oxide  of  the  chemist)  with  water  and  boil 
it  to  make  a  paste.  This  they  strain,  and  then  they 
stir  in  some  powdered  carbonate  of  lime  (powdered 
chalk),  which  thickens  and  gives  some  body  to  the 
mixture.  The  paste  thus  formed  is  applied,  as  a  rule, 
not  with  a  brush  but  with  a  flat  wooden  instrument 
or  spatula,  with  which  the  paste  is  laid  on  as  with 
a  trowel,  and  further,  to  get  the  dead  white  effects 
so  commonly  noticed,  the  paste  is  put  on  the  back 
of  the  cloth  as  well  as  on  the  front. 

My  friend  also  explained  to  me  how  the  Japanese 
were  able  to  get  irregular  shaded  effects  with  their 
stencil  work,  and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish  such 
beautiful  and  intricate  hand-made  work,  at  such  ab- 
surdly low  prices.  These  goods  are  made  of  very  thin 
porous  materials,  and  the  dyer  applies  with  his  trowel 
the  thick  resist  paste,  through  the  stencil,  to  one  piece 
after  another,  laying  each  one,  as  fast  as  it  is  stencilled, 
carefully  on  top  of  the  previous  one,  until  a  pile  has 
been  formed  of  ten  or  more  separate  pieces.  This  pile 
is  pressed  very  tightly  together,  and  then  the  dyestuff, 
as,  for  instance,  Indigo  in  solution  and  thoroughly 
reduced,  is  poured  on  to  this  mass  of  goods,  soaking 
through  from  one  to  the  other,  but  always  kept  out  of 
the  white  parts  by  the  double  coating  of  thick  paste. 

After  a  few  minutes  these  pieces  are  carefully  taken 
off,  one  by  one,  exposed  to  the  air  until  oxidized,  and 
then  thoroughly  washed  until  the  paste  and  loose  color 
have  all  disappeared.  For  an  example  of  Japanese  re- 
sist stencil  work,  dyed  in  an  iron  spring,  see  Plate  III. 
Resist  Stencilling  with  Sulphur  Dyes. — Without  lav- 


PLATE  V.  JAPANESE  TOWELLING  DYED  BY 
IMMERSION  IN  IRON  SPRING.  THE  WHITE 
PATTERN  IS  CAUSED  BY  RESIST  STENCILLING 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling       231 

ishly  copying  the  Japanese  practice  it  is  possible  to  get 
very  interesting  results  by  using  suitable  dyestuffs  with 
a  simpler  paste. 

The  most  useful  dyes  for  this  purpose  are  the  Sul- 
phur dyes,  which,  as  the  student  will  remember,  can 
be  applied  in  the  cold,  with  very  short  exposure  to 
the  dye-liquor,  and  are  fixed  firmly  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  giving  results  fast  to  light  and  extremely  fast 
to  washing.  A  paste  made  from  wheat  flour,  thick- 
ened a  little  with  an  inert  powder,  like  powdered  chalk 
or  zinc  oxide,  will  work  fairly  well,  acting  as  a  purely 
mechanical  protection  to  the  fibre.  But  much  better 
results  can  be  obtained  by  adding  to  the  paste  as  much 
as  it  will  absorb  of  the  easily  soluble  chemical,  zinc 
sulphate,  which  acts  chemically  in  resisting  the  action 
of  these  particular  dyestuffs. 

The  Sulphur  colors,  as  before  explained,  are  kept  in 
solution  in  the  dye-bath,  by  the  presence  of  sodium 
sulphide,  and  when  this  is  absent  or  is  destroyed  by 
any  cause,  the  dyestuff  is  precipitated  as  an  insoluble, 
inert  powder.  Now,  when  zinc  sulphate  comes  in  con- 
tact with  sodium  sulphide  it  at  once  decomposes  the 
latter,  forming  a  white  precipitate,  zinc  sulphide, 
which  has  no  action  at  all  on  either  dyestuff  or  cloth. 
Accordingly  a  paste  containing  zinc  sulphate  has  far 
greater  efficiency  as  a  resist  than  any  mixture  that 
acts  purely  mechanically. 

Resist  stencil  pastes  can  be  obtained,  in  tubes,  at 
moderate  prices,  but  can  also  be  readily  prepared  by 
making  not  too  stiff  a  paste,  with  wheat  flour  thor- 
oughly boiled  with  a  saturated  solution  of  zinc  sul- 


232  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

phate  instead  of  with  water,  and  then  stirring  into 
this  paste  some  powdered  chalk  or  zinc  oxide,  until 
of  the  proper  consistency  for  stencilling. 

To  use  this  paste,  the  cloth,  as  usual,  should  be 
washed  free  from  dressing,  and  after  being  smoothed 
with  a  hot  iron,  should  be  slightly  dampened.  The 
paste  is  then  brushed  through  the  stencil  on  to,  and 
into,  the  cloth,  which  is  then  allowed  to  dry.  The 
dye-bath  should  then  be  prepared  of  Sulphur  dyes  care- 
fully dissolved,  in  a  separate  cup  or  saucepan,  in  a 
hot  solution  of  sodium  sulphide  and  sodium  carbonate 
(soda),  and  added  to  cold  water  in  the  dye-bath. 

A  few  drops  of  "  Turkey  red  oil  "  added  to  the  dye- 
bath  helps  to  prevent  a  thick  scum  from  forming  on 
top  of  the  liquor,  while  the  addition  of  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  salt  dissolved  in  a  little  hot  water  helps  the 
rapidity  and  depth  of  the  dyeing. 

Plenty  of  color  should  be  used  excepting  for  very 
light  shades,  for  the  dyeing  should  be  done  just  as 
quickly  as  possible.  For  silk  some  syrup  should  be 
added. 

The  stencilled  cloth  is  then  quickly  moistened  in 
cold  water,  placed  in  the  dye-bath,  kept  there  two  or 
three  minutes,  below  the  level  of  the  liquid;  it  is  then 
taken  out,  the  liquor  drained  off,  and  after  a  minute 
or  two,  wrung  off;  the  cloth  is  then  shaken  out,  and 
exposed  to  the  air,  for  some  ten  minutes,  to  set  the 
color.  After  this  it  is  well  washed  in  a  boiling  soap 
bath,  and,  as  the  paste  washes  out,  the  stencilled  pat- 
tern will  show  light  against  the  dark  background. 

The  whiteness  of  the  pattern  depends,  of  course, 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling       233 

upon  the  skill  with  which  the  paste  has  been  applied, 
and  the  care  taken  to  prevent  it  from  washing  off 
before  or  during  the  dyeing  process.  It  is  difficult, 
though  not  absolutely  impossible,  to  get  as  sharp  and 
clear-cut  results  as  those  of  the  Japanese,  for  instance. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  dark  background  it  is 
often,  indeed  generally,  more  pleasing  to  have  the 
white  patterns  softened  and  not  standing  out  too 
vividly. 

In  our  laboratory  we  have  had  considerable  success 
with  this  process.  And  some  of  our  friends  and 
students  have  used  it  with  very  good  results  upon  arti- 
cles of  clothing,  which,  made  of  linen,  calico,  etc., 
must  be  fast  to  severe  washing  as  well  as  to  light. 

Of  course,  it  is  perfectly  easy  to  alter  the  color 
of  the  background,  as  in  other  classes  of  resist  work, 
such  as  Tied  and  Dyed  work,  for  instance,  or  Batik, 
by  either  starting  off  with  colored  cloth  which  is  pro- 
tected all  through  by  the  resist  paste,  or  else  by  cover- 
ing the  stencilled  and  dyed  goods,  afterwards,  with 
some  shade  which  will  soften  and  harmonize  both  pat- 
tern and  background.  For  this  covering  shade,  which 
need  not  be  very  fast  to  washing,  but  must  be  dis- 
tributed uniformly  over  the  whole  cloth,  the  student 
will  find  the  Salt  colors  very  useful. 
Discharge  Stencilling. — Though  it  is  not  certain 
whether  this  process  is  known  to,  and  used  by,  the 
Japanese,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter,  with  modern  dyes 
and  modern  chemicals,  to  get  interesting  results  with 
it.  There  are  two  distinct  and  separate  ways  open  to 
the  dyer  for  discharging,  i.e.,  destroying  his  dyestuffs, 


234  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

whether  they  are  dyed  on  cloth,  or  whether,  as  is  not 
infrequently  the  case  with  amateurs,  they  are  present 
as  a  stain  on  his  hands  and  fingers.  In  each  case,  how- 
ever, care  must  be  taken,  as  may  easily  be  imagined, 
to  use  such  chemicals  as  will  spare  the  materials, 
whether  cotton  and  linen,  or  nails  and  skin,  while  at- 
tacking the  coloring  matter. 

(a)  Discharge  by  Oxidation.  Chlorine  Compounds, 
Bleaching  Powder,  etc. — In  the  first  place,  chemists 
have  long  known  that  certain  chemicals,  more  par- 
ticularly the  powerful  gaseous  element  known  as 
chlorine  and  certain  of  its  compounds,  have  the  power 
of  permanently  destroying  coloring  matters  by  oxidiz- 
ing or  burning  them. 

At  first  this  was  done  by  using  chlorine  itself,  or  a 
water  solution  of  chlorine.  Later,  however,  it  was 
found  that  on  passing  chlorine  into  some  caustic  alkali, 
like  quicklime,  or  caustic  soda,  or  caustic  potash,  these 
would  absorb  immense  quantities  of  chlorine  which 
would  be  again  given  out,  as  desired,  on  the  addition 
of  acid,  or  even,  though  very  slowly  and  gradually, 
by  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  air. 

The  lime  compound,  which  contains  more  chlorine 
than  the  others,  and  has  the  great  advantage  of  being 
dry,  has  long  been  known  as  chloride  of  lime  or  as 
bleaching  powder,  and  has  been,  and  is,  commonly 
used  from  one  end  of  the  world  to  the  other  as  a  quick, 
ready,  cheap  source  of  chlorine  either  for  bleaching 
or  for  disinfection.  The  potash  and  soda  compounds, 
known  respectively  as  Labarraque's  solution  and  Ja- 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling       235 

velle  water,  are  less  active  and  powerful  than  bleach- 
ing powder,  but  have  the  same  general  properties. 

Over  a  hundred  years  ago,  very  soon  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  bleaching  properties  of  these  compounds, 
chemists  began  to  use  them,  not  only  for  decolorizing 
and  whitening  raw  cotton  and  linen  cloth,  but  also  for 
discharging  the  color  in  patterns  from  dyed  goods. 
The  process  was  not  a  difficult  one,  and  is  used  to  this 
day  to  some  extent  in  the  calico  printing  mills.  The 
cloth  is  first  dyed  to  shade,  fixed,  and  dried.  The  pat- 
tern is  then  printed  on  with  a  paste  containing  some 
solid  organic  acid,  like  citric  acid  or  tartaric  acid,  dis- 
solved in  it.  After  drying,  the  printed  cloth  is  passed 
through  a  bath  of  bleaching  powder  in  water,  possibly 
with  a  little  weak  alkali  added,  to  be  sure  that  no  free 
chlorine  is  present;  and  wherever  the  bleaching  pow- 
der meets  the  acid  the  cloth  is  decolorized,  but  the  rest 
of  the  cloth  comes  out  of  the  bath  without  being  much, 
if  at  all,  altered  in  color.  Of  course,  on  coming  out 
of  this  bath  the  cloth  must  be  thoroughly  washed  to 
get  rid  of  any  traces  of  chloride  of  lime,  which  other- 
wise, on  exposure  to  the  air,  would  play  havoc  with 
the  rest  of  the  colors. 

This  process  worked  very  well  with  the  old  vege- 
table dyes,  and,  every  now  and  then,  some  craftsman, 
of  an  experimental  turn  of  mind,  revives  it  for  stencil 
work.  The  dyed  cloth  is  stencilled  with  a  paste  made 
of  wheat  flour  boiled  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
citric  acid,  it  is  dried,  and  then  passed  through  a  bath 
of  bleaching  powder  in  water,  say  two  or  three  table- 
spoonfuls  to  the  gallon.  It  is  generally  best  to  stir 


236  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

in  a  few  drops  of  a  soda  solution  to  the  bath,  till  all 
smell  of  chlorine  has  gone,  or  else  the  background  may 
be  affected.  The  stencilled  cloth  is  dipped  in  this  bath, 
and  kept  there  for  a  few  minutes,  until  the  bleaching 
process  is  well  under  way,  and  then  taken  out,  and 
washed  in  hot  soap  and  water,  and  rinsed  well. 
Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Bleaching  Powder 
Discharge. — The  chief  advantage  of  this  process  is  that 
it  is  very  cheap  and  the  materials  can  be  bought  at  al- 
most any  grocery.  The  disadvantages  are,  however, 
important.  As  long  as  it  is  confined  to  easily  dis- 
charged, comparatively  fugitive,  colors,  it  will  destroy 
the  color  all  right  in  the  stencilled  parts,  although  the 
bleaching  powder  bath  is  apt  to  attack  the  color  in  the 
body  of  the  cloth,  and  the  outlines  of  the  pattern  are 
apt  to  be  soft  and  irregular  because  of  the  escaping 
chlorine,  where  the  citric  acid  is  acting. 

When,  however,  very  fast  dyes  are  being  used,  as 
for  instance,  the  Vat  colors  or,  indeed,  a  great  many  of 
the  best  dyes  in  all  the  classes,  the  action  of  chlorine 
is  very  slow,  and  slight,  and,  in  order  to  really  destroy 
the  color  both  the  acid  and  the  bleaching  powder  will 
often  have  to  be  so  strong  that  the  chlorine  set  free  will 
destroy  the  fibre  as  well.  For  the  term  "  fastness  to 
light "  implies,  as  a  rule,  fastness  also  to  oxidation  in 
general,  and  dyes  like  the  best  modern  ones  which  will 
let  the  cloth  rot  away  from  under  them,  when  long 
exposed  to  the  weather  without  changing  color,  are 
very  apt  also  to  keep  their  color,  even  when  the  cloth 
is  burnt  away  from  under  them  by  the  action  of 
chlorine. 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling      237 

Accordingly,  this  process  is  distinctly  one  that  needs 
careful  experimentation  before  it  is  tried  on  any  im- 
portant piece  of  work.  There  are  plenty  of  dyestuffs 
among  the  Salt  colors,  and  also  among  the  Sulphur 
colors,  which  discharge  well  with  chlorine.  *And  the 
calico  printer,  working,  as  he  generally  does  to  this 
day,  with  comparatively  fugitive  dyes,  and  weighing 
accurately  both  acid  and  bleaching  powder,  can  gen- 
erally get  good  results  with  it.  But  there  is  always  the 
disadvantage,  that  the  least  excess  of  chlorine  will 
attack  and  tender  the  cloth,  and  the  better  the  dyestuff, 
as  a  rule,  the  stronger  the  oxidizing  agent  must  be  to 
discharge  it. 

(b)  Discharge  by  Reduction,  Hydro  sulphite,  etc. — 
The  wary  craftsman  will  find  the  process  much  less 
dangerous  to  the  cloth,  and  not  much  more  difficult,  if 
instead  of  trying  to  oxidize  the  dyestuff,  he  attempts 
to  discharge  it  by  reducing  it;  or,  in  other  words,  if 
instead  of  trying  to  burn  it  out,  he  tries  to  take  the 
oxygen  away  from  it. 

It  so  happens  that  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases  a  dye- 
stuff  becomes  decolorized  by  reducing  it,  just  as  well 
as  by  oxidizing  it.  There  is,  however,  a  difference. 
When  the  color  is  oxidized,  it  is  burnt  up  and  de- 
stroyed forever.  When  it  is  reduced,  however,  it  is, 
in  many  cases,  only  decolorized  and  not  destroyed;  and 
on  standing  in  the  air  it  is  apt  to  take  up  oxygen  again, 
and  to  regain  some,  at  least,  of  the  original  color. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  any  oxidation  process  is  lia- 
ble to  attack  the  cloth  as  well  as  the  color,  the  reducing 
agents  now  in  use  have  no  effect  upon  the  materials, 


238  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

even  when  powerful  enough  to  act  on  the  very  fastest 
dyestuffs. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  most  satisfactory  reduc- 
ing agent  at  present  known  to  dyers  is  hydrosulphite 
of  soda,  and  this  can  be  incorporated  in  a  paste,  and 
used  for  discharge  stencilling.  It  is,  however,  as  a 
rule,  more  satisfactory  to  use  the  more  expensive,  but 
more  permanent  hydrosulphite  compound,  described, 
in  the  last  chapter,  as  acting  only  when  heated. 

The  reducing  stencil  paste  can  be  easily  made  by 
mixing  with  some  "  gum  dragon  "  or  flour  paste,  as 
much  as  it  will  hold  of  a  saturated  solution  of  the 
"  Stencil  Salt." 

The  student  should  experiment  with  the  different 
dyes  and  classes  of  dyes  before  attempting  a  serious 
piece  of  work;  but  in  general,  all  the  Salt  colors  and 
the  Acid  colors  will  discharge  readily  with  this  paste, 
and  remain  colorless.  The  Vat  colors  and  the  Sulphur 
colors  can  also  be  reduced  to  colorless  compounds, 
but  it  is  not  always  easy  to  wash  them  out  of  the  cloth 
after  the  reduction,  and,  if  they  remain  in  it,  they  are 
apt  to  regain  their  color,  on  standing  in  the  air. 

The  dyed  cloth,  carefully  washed  and  pressed  and 
dampened,  is  stencilled  with  the  above  paste  and  al- 
lowed to  dry.  When  dry  it  is  steamed,  as  described 
in  the  last  chapter,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  when  a 
certain  temperature  is  reached  the  color  will  be  dis- 
charged. As  soon  as  possible  afterwards  the  cloth 
is  to  be  washed  in  a  hot  soap  bath  to  remove  the  re- 
duced color  compound  (which,  as  a  rule,  has  little 


Resist  and  Discharge  Stencilling       239 

affinity  for  the  cloth)  and  to  get  rid  of  the  paste. 
Then  the  cloth  is  dried  and  finished. 

When  trying  this  process  with  the  Vat  dyes  it  is 
best  to  soak  the  cloth  directly  after  steaming,  and 
before  soaping,  in  a  warm  bath  containing  a  little  free 
caustic  soda  (remember  this  is  apt  to  burn  the  fingers) 
because  the  reduced  colors  of  this  class  are  not,  as  a 
rule,  soluble  in  water,  and  are  apt  to  oxidize  again  in 
a  soap  bath. 

Results. — In  following  up  these  various  experiments 
in  our  laboratory  we  have  not  used  this  process  in 
much  as  the  Resist  stencilling,  but  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  give  just  as  good  results.  Indeed, 
the  craftsman  will  probably  find,  after  a  little  prac- 
tice, that  it  is  easier  to  get  clear  white  patterns  with 
this  than  with  the  other.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of 
requiring  the  rather  bothersome  steaming  process, 
which  reduces  its  value  for  many  purposes.  Still  it 
will  often  be  found  that  simply  ironing  the  dried  sten- 
cilled cloth  with  a  hot  flatiron,  with  a  damp  cloth  be- 
tween, will  cause  the  reduction  to  take  place  quite  sat- 
isfactorily. 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  process  over  the  other 
is  that,  as  the  dyeing  is  done  before  and  not  after  the 
stencilling,  it  is  possible  to  get  the  exact  shade  of  back- 
ground required.  While,  in  the  resist  stencilling  every 
minute,  almost  indeed  every  second  that  the  stencilled 
goods  are  left  in  the  dye-bath,  is  liable  to  obscure 
the  pattern.  And  it  is  hard  to  get  first-class  results, 
as  regards  fastness  to  rubbing  and  washing,  and  it 


240  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

is  impossible  to  match  shades,  when  working  so 
hurriedly. 

Then,  too,  this  discharge  process  permits  the  use 
of  almost  every  color  on  the  list,  while  the  resist 
process  practically  confines  the  craftsman  to  the  use  of 
the  Sulphur  dyes  only. 

Those  who  are  interested  in  this  line  of  work  are 
advised  to  try  these  two  processes  upon  silk,  where 
very  beautiful  and  interesting  effects  can  be  produced 
with  but  little  difficulty.  The  resist  process,  using 
Sulphur  colors,  gives  quiet  soft  tones  on  silk,  fast  to 
the  hardest  kind  of  washing.  But  brighter  shades, 
equally  fast  to  light,  and  fairly  fast  to  washing,  can  be 
made  with  the  discharge  process  by  using  Salt  colors. 

For  ordinary  work  the  Acid  dyes,  of  course,  would 
be  used,  and  these,  too,  as  a  rule,  discharge  readily. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BATIK 

THE  last  and  perhaps  the  most  interesting  and 
most  important  process  to  which  we  shall  call 
our  reader's  attention  is  one  which,  after  being 
practised  in  the  East  for  many  centuries,  has  been 
brought  quite  recently  to  the  attention  of  European 
and  American  craftsmen. 

The  term  "  Batik  "  is  a  Javanese  word,  signifying 
painting  in  wax,  and  the  process,  somewhat  modified, 
is  known  to  professional  dyers  and  calico-printers  by 
the  name  of  "  wax  resist."  When  in  the  hands  of  a 
trained  draughtsman  the  process  has  a  charm  and  char- 
acter of  its  own,  which  will  warrant  the  interest  now 
manifested  in  it,  wherever  it  has  been  introduced. 
History. — Batik  was  first  introduced  by  the  Dutch 
discoverers  of  Java,  who,  in  1648,  sent  home  descrip- 
tions, with  drawings,  of  the  wonderfully  beautiful  tex- 
tiles worn  by  the  people,  especially  by  the  chiefs  of 
that  country.  The  art  was  known  and  practised  in  the 
East  long  before  that  time,  for  in  Madras  goods  were 
made,  by  a  combination  of  block  printing  and  Batik, 
at  least  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century.  And  in  the 
interior  of  Java  there  are  some  famous  old  ruins  in 
which  are  found  stone  statues  of  Buddha,  supposed 

241 


242  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

to  be  at  least  1,200  or  1,300  years  old,  clothed  in  gar- 
ments the  same  as  those  used  at  the  present  day ;  and 
showing,  from  their  decorations,  that  they  were  orna- 
mented by  Batik  in  the  same  general  style  of  patterns 
that  are  still  popular  there. 

During  the  last  few  years  very  careful  studies  have 
been  made,  especially  by  the  Dutch  Government,  upon 
this  Javanese  process,  and  they  have  endeavored  to 
.introduce  it  into  Europe.  It  was  amusing  to  notice 
that  in  one  of  the  reports  issued  by  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment on  this  subject  it  was  stated  that  none  of  the 
modern  dyestuffs  could  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  and 
that  the  only  colors  that  could  be  recommended  as 
fast  to  light  were  the  old  vegetable  dyestuffs,  applied 
in  the  complicated  and  troublesome  methods  of  past 
ages.  This  curiously  unscientific  attitude  has  seri- 
ously interfered  with  the  success  of  the  process  in 
Western  lands,  and  is  only  now  being  abandoned. 
Javanese  Practice — Detailed  information  about  the 
history,  technique,  and  designs  of  the  Javanese  process 
has  been  set  down  in  a  monumental  work :  "  Die  Batik- 
kunst  in  Niederlandisch  Indien,"  published  in  Harlem 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch  Government  in  1899. 
Perhaps  of  more  interest  to  the  non-scientific  reader 
is  a  short  but  well-written  account  of  "  Battack  Print- 
ing in  Java,"  read  before  the  Manchester  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  ^-1996  by  an  English  chem- 
ist, John  Allan,  who  spent  several  months  among  the 
natives,  studying  the  process  at  first-hand. 

According  to  these  authorities  the  Javanese  and, 
indeed,  most  of  the  natives  of  Malaysia,  wear  gar- 


Batik  243 

ments  simple  enough  in  style  and  cut,  but  elaborately 
decorated  with  great  variety  of  both  color  and  design. 
The  principal  garment,  common  to  both  men  and 
women,  is  the  sarong,  in  shape  not  unlike  a  large  and 
elongated  bath  towel,  which,  according  to  the  desire 
and  sex  of  the  owner,  may  be  made  to  serve  as  trousers 
or  skirt,  overcoat  or  blanket,  and  is  the  universal  bath- 
ing costume.  It  is  made  of  calico,  rarely  homespun, 
almost  always  imported  from  Lancashire  or  Holland, 
and  as  the  natives,  both  men  and  women,  are  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  bathing,  the  colors  must  be  fast  enough 
to  stand  constant  exposure  to  water  as  well  as  to  the 
fierce  tropical  sun. 

They  also  wear  head-dresses  made  from  squares  of 
calico,  dyed  with  square  centres  of  plain  color  and 
elaborately  decorated  at  the  sides;  and  slendangs,  a 
kind  of  girdle  or  shawl,  usually  made  of  silk  and  less 
elaborately  decorated.  The  costume  is  completed,  for 
full-dress  occasions,  by  a  thin  shirt  or  chemise  and  a 
light  jacket. 

For  producing  the  designs  on  the  sarongs,  the  proc- 
ess of  wax  resist  is  almost  always  employed  by  the 
natives.  Unfortunately  of  late  years  the  Javanese 
market  has  been  flooded  with  an  immense  quantity  of 
cheap  and,  generally,  neatly  printed  goods  made  in 
Manchester  and  in  Holland  in  rough  imitation  of  the 
native  styles.  So  it  is  not  an  easy  matter,  nowadays, 
even  in  Java,  to  get  genuine  specimens  of  Batik  work. 
These  can  always  be  recognized,  however,  on  careful 
examination  by  the  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor 
and  "  feel "  of  the  wax  left  behind  in  the  cloth,  and, 


244  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

better,  by  the  fine  irregular  "  crackle  "  formed  in  the 
dye-pot. 

Variations  in  the  Process. — Although  there  are  dif- 
ferent methods,  the  Batik  process,  as  usually  meant,  is 
a  means  of  dyeing  in  which,  before  immersing  the 
goods  in  the  dye-pot,  the  patterns  are  carefully  drawn 
in  molten  beeswax,  applied  from  a  little  copper  cup 
with  a  fine  spout  called  a  tjanting.  Frequently,  how- 
ever, to  save  time,  the  Javanese  apply  the  wax  by 
means  of  a  metal  die  or  block,  made  by  inserting  thin 
strips  of  sheet  brass  in  a  wooden  frame,  so  that  the 
edges  of  the  bras^/orm  the  desired  pattern.  These 
blocks,  provided  with  a  handle  covered  with  cloth,  are 
first  dipped  into  the  molten  wax,  and  then  the  excess  is 
removed  by  pressing  against  a  pad,  which  is  kept  warm 
by  being  near  the  fire  of  the  melting  pot.  The  pattern 
is  thus  stamped  onto  the  cloth  instead  of  being  poured 
onto  it,  through  a  small  spout,  out  of  a  cup. 

This  Batik  process  is  sometimes  used  by  native 
craftsmen  in  other  parts  of  the  Far  East.  Plate  I,  for 
instance,  shows  a  specimen  of  East  Indian  work,  part 
of  a  lojig  piece  of  stout  cotton  bought,  years  ago,  at 
Liberty's  in  London,  with  an  elaborate  design  made 
with  molten  wax,  applied  by  brush  or  tjanting.  Even 
in  the  plate  the  characteristic  '  crackle '  shows  plainly. 
Wax. — In  Java,  the  wax  used  for  pouring  is  a 
mixture  of  paraffin  and  beeswax,  or  an  impure  wax 
imported  from  Japan  for  this  purpose.  For  stamping 
the  patterns  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  stiffer  wax  made 
from  rosin  and  paraffin,  sometimes  mixed  with 
varnish  gums. 


Batik  245 

Dyes. — The  principal  colors  used  are  indigo  and 
a  beautiful  golden-brown  dye  made  from  the  bark  of 
the  mango  tree.  The  combination  of  these  gives  a 
black,  so  that  the  fine  old  sarongs  usually  contain 
white,  blue,  brown,  and  black.  Indigo  is  dyed  first, 
and,  before  dyeing,  all  the  cloth,  excepting  that  which 
is  to  come  out  blue  or  black,  is  carefully  covered  with 
the  wax.  After  the  indigo  bath  (the  Javanese  use  a 
fermentation  vat)  the  color  is  set  by  oxidation.  The 
old  wax  is  then  all  washed  off  with  boiling  soap  and 
water,  and  after  drying,  the  wax  is  again  applied  to  all 
parts,  whether  white  or  blue,  which  are  not  to  receive 
the  brown  dye.  The  latter  is  made  from  a  strong, 
syrupy  extract  of  bark,  and  is  used  without  mordant- 
ing, the  color  being  set  by  exposure  to  air.  As  the 
dyes  must  be  used  cold,  to  avoid  melting  and  oblit- 
erating the  pattern,  the  goods  are  usually  dipped  in 
each  dye-bath  and  exposed,  several  times,  before 
reaching  the  desired  shade.  After  the  final  dyeing, 
the  wax  is  removed  by  a  hot  bath  of  wood  ashes  or 
soap,  and  the  garment  is  pressed  out  ready  to  wear. 

When  a  red  color  is  desired,  the  natives  use  a  varia- 
tion of  the  old  Turkey  red  process,  dyeing  with  madder 
or  munjeet  upon  cloth  mordanted  with  alum  and  oil. 
The  wax  in  this  case  acts  as  a  resist  against  the  alum 
mordant,  which  is  applied  cold,  and  thus  prevents  the 
dyestuff,  which  is  applied  at  the  boil,  from  coloring  the 
cloth  in  the  protected  portions. 

Cloth. — The  cloth  used  for  this  Batik  process  is 
strong  common  calico,  but,  before  beginning  t6 
wax  it,  they  give  it  a  careful  treatment,  to  im- 


246  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

prove  both  its  texture  and  its  ground  color.  For 
a  period  of  several  days  they  alternately  soak  it  in 
castor  oil,  wring  it  out,  boil  out  the  oil  with  soda 
lye,  and  expose  it  to  the  blazing  sun;  until  finally  it 
becomes  soft  and  smooth,  and  has  a  pleasant  tan  color 
which  goes  excellently  with  the  brown,  blue,  and  black 
dyes. 

The  peculiarity  of  all  these  Batik  goods,  whether 
from  the  East  or  made  at  home  or  in  Europe,  is  the 
characteristic  "  crackle  "  effect,  due  to  the  breaking 
of  the  wax  upon  the  cloth  in  the  process  of  dyeing, 
thereby  admitting  the  color  to  the  protected  cloth  in 
fine  lines  and  streaks.  This  distinguishes  the  wax 
resist  work  from  the  previously  described  paste  resist, 
which  if  desired  will  leave  a  smooth,  clean,  white  back- 
ground, or  if  applied  more  lightly  will  give  back- 
grounds shaded  more  uniformly  and  without  so  many 
irregular  lines  of  color. 

This  crackle  effect,  so  generally  admired  in  the 
West,  is  often  by  the  Javanese  considered  a  defect, 
and  a  sign  of  poor  workmanship.  It  can  be  largely,  if 
not  wholly,  avoided  by  adding  a  large  proportion  of 
rosin  to  the  wax,  by  batiking  the  cloth  on  both  sides, 
and  by  dyeing  the  goods  with  as  little  crumpling  as 
possible. 

MODERN  BATIK 

The  application  of  the  artificial  dyestuffs  to  this 
ancient  process  has  simplified  it  greatly,  and  has 
brought  it  within  the  scope  of  craftsmen  in  general. 


Batik  247 

Apparatus — Brushes. — You  will  soon  find  that  for  a 
good  deal  of  the  work,  such  as  covering  large 
surfaces  with  wax,  or  filling  in  large  and  bold  designs, 
a  small-sized  paint  brush  is  all  that  is  necessary.  The 
wax  is  melted  in  a  cup  or  casserole,  and  painted  on  the 
cloth  wherever  the  design  calls  for  it.  It  will  be 
found,  however,  no  easy  matter  to  get  sharp  and  clear 
outlines  in  this  way,  and  intricate  or  delicate  patterns 
cannot  be  worked  out  by  the  brush  only.  When  the 
wax  is  hot,  it  is  hard  to  prevent  it  from  spreading  and 
running  too  far  over  the  cloth,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  cools  so  rapidly  on  the  brush  that,  unless  applied  at 
once,  it  is  hard  to  spread  it  at  all,  and  the  wax  is  liable 
not  to  stick  to  the  cloth. 

Much  is  saved  both  in  time  and  in  accuracy  and 
clearness  of  outline,  by  using  the  brush  in  combination 
with  the  tj anting,  drawing  the  outlines  with  the  latter, 
and  filling  in  with  the  brush. 

When  large  surfaces  have  been  covered  with  the 
wax,  and  the  characteristic  "  crackle "  effect  is  de- 
sired, it  is  often  well  to  cool  the  goods,  by  placing 
them  in  the  ice  box  or  out  of  doors  for  a  few  minutes, 
and  then  to  crumple  them  in  the  hands,  before  dyeing 
them.  The  composition  of  the  wax,  also,  has  much 
to  do  with  this  part  of  the  work,  as  will  be  explained 
later. 

The  brush  can  also  be  employed  for  painting 
molten  wax  on  to  the  goods  through  a  stencil,  in 
resist  stencil  work.  This,  however,  is  not  satisfactory, 
even  with  metallic  stencils,  and  fails  completely  with 
paper  stencils,  because  the  wax,  on  cooling,  fastens 


248  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

stencil  and  cloth  together  so  that  they  cannot  be  sep- 
arated without  injury. 

It  is  much  better  practice,  where  a  stencil  design  is 
to  be  worked  with  wax  resist,  to  make  an  outline  of 
the  design  on  the  goods  with  a  sharp  pencil,  and  then, 
removing  the  stencil,  to  fill  in  the  pattern  with  tj anting 
and  brush.  This  same  practice  of  drawing  the  outline 
on  the  goods  with  pencil,  or  tracing  paper,  or  by  trans- 
ferring from  a  charcoal  drawing,  by  rubbing,  is  always 
to  be  recommended:  except  for  those  craftsmen  who 
are  such  thoroughly  trained  draughtsmen  that  they  can 
draw  their  designs  free-hand,  with  the  tj  anting,  with- 
out danger  of  slip  or  mistake.  A  pencil  or  crayon  line, 
if  not  quite  true,  can  be  erased  without  spoiling  the 
whole  design,  but  it  is  quite  a  troublesome  matter  to 
correct  a  mistake  made  in  molten  wax. 
Tjantings — The  real  interest  in  this  Batik  process 
lies  in  the  use  of  some  form  of  pouring  instrument  by 
which  the  molten  wax  can  be  applied  to  the  material 
in  a  fine  stream,  with  much  the  same  freedom  that  a 
drawing  can  be  made  with  soft  pencil  or  crayon.  This 
practice  has  been  developed  in  Java  to  its  fullest  ex- 
tent, and  a  fine  sarong,  containing  two  or  three  yards 
of  calico,  will  be  completely  covered,  from  one  end  to 
the  other,  with  wonderfully  intricate  and  elaborate 
designs  in  two  or  three  colors,  all  produced,  perfectly 
free-hand,  by  curious  little  tjantings,  in  the  light  fin- 
gers of  the  little  Javanese  women. 

Teapots. — When  we  began  experimenting  with 
Batik,  in  our  laboratory,  we  had  no  model  of  the  Jav- 
anese tools  to  work  with,  and,  from  the  drawings,  we 


FIG.   20— "TEAPOT"    MODEL   OF   TJANTING 


FIG.  21— WALTHER  GLASS  TJANTING 


FIG.   22— "WAX   PENCIL"   MODEL   OF   TJANTING 


Batik  249 

could  not  see  how  they  could  be  used  without  constant 
dripping.  So  we  designed  a  little  brass  apparatus, 
which  we  and  our  friends  nicknamed  a  "  teapot," 
which,  with  some  modification,  is  shown  in  Fig.  20,  in 
which  the  molten  wax  remains  in  the  cup  until  it  is 
poured  out.  This,  with  practice,  works  fairly  well, 
and  some  very  interesting  work  has  been  done  with  it. 

It  is  hard,  however,  to  draw  with  it  on  a  horizontal 
surface,  such  as  we  are  accustomed  to  work  on.  And 
to  follow  Javanese  practice,  and  have  the  cloth  hang- 
ing over  a  frame,  and  to  press  it  out  with  the  left  hand 
while  the  wax  is  applied  with  the  instrument  in  the 
right,  is  oftentimes  a  nuisance. 

The  Walther  Glass  Tjanting. — It  is  evident  that 
we  were  not  alone  in  our  fear  of  the  Javanese 
models  with  spouts  at  the  bottom,  because,  in 
Germany,  Dr.  C.  Walther  of  Crefeld  has  designed 
and  introduced  a  glass  tjanting,  shown  in  Fig.  21, 
which  also  delivers  only  on  tipping  the  instru- 
ment forward.  This  we  have  experimented  with  but 
without  much  success.  For  we  have  found  it  difficult 
and  awkward  to  draw  with  it  on  a  horizontal  surface, 
and  also,  being  made  of  glass,  while  it  is  cheaper  than 
the  metal  models,  it  is  at  the  same  time  more  fragile. 
WOLX  Pencil. — An  entirely  new  idea  has  recently  been 
applied  to  the  art  of  Batik  by  the  introduction  of  a 
(patented)  "  wax  pencil  "  (see  Fig.  22),  made  on  the 
principle  of  the  early  stylographic  pens. 

This  tool  is  made  of  heavy  brass,  with  a  removable 
wooden  holder,  and  the  wax,  in  cylinders,  is  shoved 
into  it  from  the  top  after  removing  a  cap.  To  melt 


250  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  wax  the  wooden  holder  is  slipped  off,  and  the  pencil 
is  heated  over  a  flame  or  on  a  hot  electric  plate,  while 
the  liquid  wax  is  prevented  from  flowing  out  by  a 
"  needle  valve  "  held  in  place  by  a  small  spiral  spring. 
To  use  the  tool,  the  holder  is  slipped  over  the  pencil, 
taking  care  not  to  burn  the  fingers  in  so  doing,  and 
the  pattern  is  traced  in  just  the  same  way  that  it  would 
be  in  ink,  pressure  on  the  projecting  needle,  by  raising 
the  valve,  permitting  a  greater  or  lesser  flow  of  wax. 

These  instruments  are  certainly  more  convenient 
to  draw  with  than  any  of  the  forms  previously  men- 
tioned, and,  on  hard  smooth  surfaces,  such  as  leather, 
wood,  bone,  metal,  etc.,  are  satisfactory  enough.  But 
it  is  no  easy  matter  to  make  them  so  that  they  will 
work  well.  For  the  valve  which  regulates  the  flow  of 
wax  works  with  a  spiral  spring.  Now,  if  this  spring 
is,  or  becomes,  lax,  the  wax  drips  incessantly.  If  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  too  stiff,  it  is  quite  troublesome  to 
press  down  the  pin,  at  the  tip,  just  hard  enough  to 
deliver  a  fine  stream,  without  opening  it  too  wide. 

In  our  experience  these  instruments,  which  are  quite 
expensive,  do  not  work  well  with  cloth  and,  especially, 
with  rough  weaves  of  cloth,  like  crash,  scrim,  pongee, 
coarse  calico,  and  the  like.  For  the  pin  is  liable  to 
catch  and  jump  on  the  threads,  and  then  it  delivers 
the  wax  very  unevenly. 

The  Javanese  Tjanting. — After  much  experimenting 
one  of  our  friends  finally  brought  us,  from  Holland,  a 
real  tj anting  copied  directly  from  the  Javanese,  and 
five  minutes'  practice  with  it  satisfied  us  that  it  was  su- 
perior to  any  of  the  "  improved  "  models  that  we  had 


FIG.    23— JAVANESE    TJANTIXGS 


FIG.  24— AMERICAN  MODIFICATION  OF 
JAVANESE  TJANTING 


Batik  251 

been  working  with.  Since  then  we  have  seen,  and 
studied,  several  different  styles  of  Javanese  tjantings, 
and  have  learned  how  they  must  be  used  to  get  the 
best  results. 

The  secret  of  these  instruments  is  two-fold.  First, 
the  size  of  the  delivery  tube,  and  second,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  wax. 

The  genuine  Javanese  tj anting  (see  Fig.  23)  is  a 
little  bit  of  a  tool,  holding  only  about  15  or  20  cubic 
centimeters  of  wax,  made  of  very  thin  hammered 
copper,  and  fastened  into  a  little  bamboo  handle,  some 
four  or  five  inches  long.  At  the  lowest  part  of  the 
cup,  which  is  drawn  out  at  that  point  into  a  spout,  is 
fastened  the  delivery  tube,  which  is  of  exceedingly 
small  calibre,  what  chemists  would  call,  in  fact,  a 
"  capillary  "  tube.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  wooden 
handle  extends  forward,  under  the  bowl,  making  it 
impossible  to  heat  the  bowl  itself,  or  melt  the  wax  in 
it,  by  a  direct  flame. 

The  wax  is  melted  in  a  separate  pot  or  large  cup, 
and  kept  at  a  high  temperature  throughout;  and  the 
operator  scoops  out  the  wax  from  this  pot  with  the 
bowl  of  the  tj  anting,  wipes  off  the  drip  with  a  rag, 
and  then  proceeds  to  draw  on  the  cloth.  In  Java,  or 
wherever  the  cloth  is  kept  upright,  by  hanging  from 
a  frame,  the  drip  from  the  outside  of  the  cup  and 
the  end  of  the  handle  is  not  so  important,  for  it  will 
fall  in  front  of  the  cloth.  When,  however,  the  cloth 
is  laid  flat,  for  drawing,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  avoid  all  unnecessary  dripping,  and  so  it  is  probably 
advisable  to  ladle  the  wax  from  the  pot  into  the  tjant- 


252  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

ing,  with  a  small  casserole  or  ladle,  rather  than  to  dip 
it  out  directly. 

Now,  if  the  size  of  the  delivery  hole  is  right,  and 
the  wax  is  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold,  it  will  form 
a  little  globule  on  the  end  of  the  tube,  and  stay  there  ; 
and  when  this  drop  is  wiped  off  and  the  tube  at  once 
applied  to  the  cloth  or  other  material,  the  wax  will 
flow  out  in  a  fine  thin  stream,  as  long  as  it  is  drawn 
along  in  contact  with  the  cloth,  and  when  lifted  up 
it  will  stop  flowing  until  again  applied  to  it.  If  the 
wax  is  too  hot,  so  that  it  runs  too  freely,  it  is  easy  to 
cool  it  to  the  proper  temperature  by  blowing  on  it. 
If  it  is  too  cool,  so  that  it  begins  to  chill  in  the  tube, 
and  to  flow  slowly  and  unevenly,  it  must  be  warmed 
by  being  again  dipped  into  the  hot  wax  for  a  new 
supply.  Great  pains  must  be  taken  to  have  the  wax 
free  from  dust  or  grit,  or  else  the  delivery  tube  will 
be  constantly  stopping  up.  A  fine  but  stiff  bristle  or 
a  very  thin  whisk  of  broom  corn  should  be  always 
on  hand  for  cleaning  the  tube.  And  after  using  the 
tj anting  pains  must  be  taken  to  clean  out  all  the  wax 
thoroughly  before  laying  it  aside,  so  that  the  tube  will 
be  clear  for  the  melted  wax,  when  it  is  next  filled. 
The  whole  tj  anting,  tube  and  cup,  should  be  gently 
warmed  before  filling,  for  fear  of  the  wax  chilling  in 
the  capillary  tube  before  it  can  be  applied.  But  the 
arrangement  of  the  handle  is  such  as  to  call  for  the 
use  of  an  outside  melting  pot  for  the  wax,  while  the 
small  size  of  the  cup  is  evidently  so  that  the  melted 
wax  can  be  all  poured  out  before  it  has  time  to  chill. 
Modification  of  the  Javanese  Tjanting. — We  have  with 


Batik  253 

much  trouble  had  some  tjantings  made  here  (see  Fig. 
24),  following  closely  the  Javanese  principles,  which 
have  proved  extremely  satisfactory.  The  delivery 
tube  is  equally  fine,  and  the  general  action  is  the 
same.  But  the  cup  has  been  made  somewhat  larger, 
and  very  considerably  heavier,  so  that  it  will  hold  more 
wax,  and  will  hold  the  heat  better.  While,  for 
economy's  sake,  instead  of  hammered  copper,  the  cup 
is  made  of  spun  brass,  and  the  wooden  handle  is  at- 
tached to  its  side,  and  not  to  the  bottom  of  it.  This 
enables  the  worker  to  heat  the  cup  directly  over  the 
alcohol  lamp,  without  danger  of  scorching  the  handle. 
Of  course,  when  this  is  done  carelessly,  it  is  liable  to 
char  some  of  the  wax  in  and  near  the  tube,  and  so  to 
cause  stoppages.  And  also,  it  is  hard  to  draw  a  series 
of  fine  lines  of  exactly  the  same  thickness,  unless  the 
wax  in  the  tj  anting  is  always  of  practically  the  same 
temperature. 

But  there  is  no  difficulty  in  filling  these  modified 
tjantings,  just  as  the  Javanese  do,  by  scooping  up  the 
melted  wax  from  a  pot,  or  by  pouring  the  melted  wax 
into  them  from  a  casserole  or  ladle.  While,  in  case 
the  wax  gets  chilled  in  the  tj  anting,  it  is  very  con- 
venient to  be  able  to  warm  the  cup  quickly  over  a  low 
clean  flame,  or  by  setting  it  upon  the  corner  of  a  hot 
plate. 

Composition  of  the  Wax — As  a  general  rule  we  have 
found  that  ordinary  unrefined  beeswax,  carefully 
melted  and  strained,  or  poured  off,  free  from  dust  and 
sediment,  is  fairly  satisfactory.  It  is,  however,  pretty 
expensive,  and  so  can  be  replaced,  without  disadvan- 


254  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

tage,  by  the  cheaper  mineral  wax,  known  in  a  crude 
state  as  Ozocerite,  and  in  its  refined  form,  which  alone 
should  be  employed,  as  Ceresine.  To  make  the  wax 
more  brittle,  and  thus  to  improve  the  "  crackle/'  it  is 
well  to  add  more  or  less  paraffin.  And  it  is  well,  too, 
to  add  considerable  rosin,  to  make  the  wax  adhere  bet- 
ter to  the  goods,  and  not  be  so  liable  to  rub  or  peel  off. 
On  the  Continent,  it  is  customary  to  use  Japanese 
vegetable  wax  instead  of  beeswax,  but  we  have  not 
found  this  to  be  advantageous. 

Where  economy  is  desirable,  or  where  it  is  hard  to 
replace  supplies,  it  is  well  to  save  the  once  used  wax 
and  use  it  over  again,  by  extracting  the  wax  from  the 
goods,  after  dyeing,  with  boiling  water,  and  then, 
when  this  cools,  collecting  the  wax  as  a  cake  floating 
on  the  top. 

Dyeing  Batiked  Goods — In  Holland  and,  to  some 
extent,  elsewhere  on  the  Continent,  where  this  process 
has  been  introduced,  great  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
the  importance  of  using  the  old  vegetable  colors  of 
the  Javanese,  along  with  their  tjantings.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  tell  my  readers  that  this  practice  is  both 
unscientific  and,  in  a  true  sense,  uncraftsmanlike.  The 
object  of  any  intelligent  craftsworker  should  be  to 
produce  beautiful  and  interesting  and  characteristic 
results  in  the  most  durable  and  effective  manner  possi- 
ble, with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  energy  upon 
the  mechanical,  as  opposed  to  the  artistic,  details. 
Why,  after  carefully  batiking  a  good  design  on  a 
piece  of  silk  or  calico,  must  the  craftsman  spend  hour 
after  hour  of  valuable  time  in  some  tedious,  compli- 


Batik  255 

cated,  and  expensive  dyeing  process,  simply  because 
"  That  is  the  way  they  do  things  in  Java,"  especially 
when,  by  using  modern  dyestuffs,  he  can  get  results 
quite  as  beautiful  and  far  more  permanent,  in  a  few 
minutes'  time,  and  with  far  less  danger  of  spoiling 
his  work.  Even  the  clever  and  skilful  little  Javanese 
could  learn  something  from  modern  dyeing  chemists. 

The  class  of  dyestuffs  to  use  depends,  of  course, 
on  the  kind  of  materials  that  are  being  worked  on. 
One  of  the  great  charms  of  this  process  is  that  it  can 
be  applied  to  all  sorts  and  kinds  of  textiles  and,  in- 
deed, of  a  host  of  things  never  included  under  that 
name. 

Batik  can  be  applied  to  cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk, 
and  other  woven  goods.  It  can  also,  if  desired,  be 
used  upon  basketry.  And  charming  effects  can  be  pro- 
duced, by  its  aid,  upon  leather,  pasteboard,  parch- 
ment, vellum,  and  other  bookbinding  materials,  as  well 
as  upon  wood,  bone,  or  indeed  anything  that  possesses 
a  smooth  surface,  and  will  hold  a  dyestuff. 

On  copper,  brass,  and  other  metals  it  can  also  be 
used,  not,  indeed,  for  dyeing,  but  for  etching,  with 
acids  and  other  chemicals,  with  great  success, 
(a)  Calico  and  Linen. — There  is  no  doubt  that  for 
vegetable  fabrics  in  general  Batik  is  very  well  fitted, 
especially  since  the  introduction  of  modern  dyes,  which 
are  applied  in  a  cold  bath  and  are  set  by  oxidation. 
The  Sulphur  dyes  work  extremely  well,  in  cold  or 
lukewarm  baths,  especially  if  used  in  a  strong  dye- 
bath.  But  they,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  not  very 
bright  colors,  and  are  very  short  on  the  red  side.  For 


256  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

soft,  quiet  colorings,  however,  extremely  fast  to  wash- 
ing, and  quite  fast  to  light,  which  can  be  applied  easily 
and  readily,  they  will  be  found  very  useful. 

But  the  fastest  colors  known,  both  for  light  and 
for  washing,  are  the  modern  Vat  colors,  many  of 
which,  once  reduced,  will  dye  in  a  lukewarm  or  even 
a  cold  dye-bath.  While  indigo,  the  type  of  these 
colors,  and  still  most  useful,  gives  a  soft  rather  grey- 
ish shade  of  blue,  more  effective  by  itself  than  when 
mixed,  there  can  be  found  among  the  Helindones, 
Thio  indigoes,  and  the  rest,  a  full  palette  of  dyes  which, 
properly  mixed,  will  furnish  any  shade  that  may  be 
desired. 

The  dyeing  directions  for  batiked  goods  are  the 
same  as  for  ordinary  calico.  The  materials,  well 
wetted,  are  immersed,  drained,  wrung,  and  oxidized 
as  usual.  The  wax  is  usually  removed  in  one  or  more 
boiling  soap  baths,  which  help  as  well  to  set  the  color 
and  to  remove  unattached  dyestuff. 

(b)  Silk. — Silk,  as  in  other  processes,  can  be  dyed 
in  several  different  ways,  according  to  the  fastness  to 
light  and  washing  desired. 

The  easiest  way,  especially  when  trying  to  match 
shades,  is  to  dye,  with  the  Acid  dyes,  in  a  soap  bath 
acidified  with  a  little  sulphuric,  or,  preferably,  with 
acetic  acid.  These  shades,  however,  while  brilliant 
and  fast  to  light,  are  not  at  all  fast  to  washing,  and 
so  the  wax  must  be  removed  later,  with  benzine  or 
gasoline,  and  not  with  a  hot  soap  bath. 

The  sulphur  dyes,  with  a  little  glucose  in  the  bath, 
and  plenty  of  dyestuff,  will  give  extremely  fast  colors 


Batik  257 

on  silk,  but  in  most  cases  these  shades  will  be  too 
dull  for  proper  effect.  They  can  be  greatly  improved 
in  color,  though  with  some  sacrifice  of  fastness,  by 
topping  them,  without  removing  the  wax,  in  a  cold 
bath  of  Basic  dyes,  dissolved  with  a  little  acetic  acid. 
For  extremely  fast  colors  the  Vat  dyes  can  be  used. 
Easier  to  apply,  especially  for  rather  light  shades,  are 
some  of  the  Salt  colors  which,  though  they  do  not 
take  as  well  on  silk,  in  the  cold,  as  they  do  on  cotton 
will,  nevertheless,  color  it  well,  with  prolonged  im- 
mersion, in  a  strong  bath,  in  the  presence  of  formic 
acid,  and  once  on,  will  stand  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  washing. 

(c)  Wool. — In  case  it  is  necessary  to  apply  this  process 
to  wool,  the  latter  will  probably  be  dyed  in  the  cold 
with  Acid  dyes,  in  the  presence  of  some  sodium  sul- 
phate (Glauber's  salt)  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

To  make  this  color  faster  to  washing,  steaming, 
and  the  like,  it  is  best,  after  dyeing,  drying,  and  re- 
moving the  wax  with  benzine,  to  boil  the  dyed  goods 
for  half  an  hour  or  more  in  a  bath  containing  a  little 
Glauber's  salt  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  but  no  dye- 
stuff. 

(d)  Leather. — As  a  rule,  the  Batiked  leather  should 
be  dyed  with  Acid  colors,  acidified  with  acetic  or 
formic  acid,  though  they  can  be  shaded  afterwards,  if 
desired,  by  staining  with  Basic  colors. 

After  dyeing,  the  wax  can  be  removed  by  benzine 
or,  softened  carefully  by  the  cautious  approach  of  a 
hot  iron,  can  be  incorporated  with  the  polishing  wax, 
used  for  rubbing  down  and  finishing  the  surface. 


258  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

(e)  Wood. — Batiked  wood  can  be  stained  by  soaking 
it  in,  or  by  brushing  it  with,  a  solution  of  an  acid  color, 
acidified  with  a  little  acetic  acid.    These  dyes  are  more 
soluble  than  most  of  the  other  classes,  and  hence  soak 
into  and  penetrate  the  fibres  better.    They  may  bleed, 
however,  if  exposed  to  warm  water. 

The  Basic  colors  or  even  the  Salt  colors  can  be  used, 
but,  while  they  are  apt  to  adhere  more  firmly,  they 
do  not  soak  in  as  well. 

The  wax  is  either  used  for  polishing,  or  is  removed 
by  benzine. 

(f)  Baskets. — Basketry  can  be  decorated  by  Batik,  al- 
though it  is  but  rarely  done.     The  baskets  would  be 
dyed  with  Basic  colors  and  acetic  acid,  excepting  where 
yellows  and  reds  were  needed,  fast  to  light,  in  which 
case  the  Acid  colors  would  be  used. 

(g)  Bone. — Very  pretty  effects  can  be  produced  with 
Batik  upon  polished  surface  of  bone  or  ivory.    These 
are  dyed  carefully  with  Acid  colors  in  a  bath  contain- 
ing acetic  acid. 

This  process  is  a  combination  of  dyeing  and  etching, 
for  the  acid  attacks  the  exposed  surfaces,  removing 
the  polish  and  opening  the  way  for  the  action  of  the 
dyestuff  later. 

Batik  Used  for  Etching. — The  talents  of  Batik  are  nu- 
merous, for  the  usefulness  of  the  Batik  tjanting  and 
brush  are  not  confined  to  the  dyer,  but  can  be  readily 
availed  of  by  any  metal  or  wood  worker  who  happens 
to  be  a  skilled  draughtsman  as  well.  Wax  is  a  good 
resist,  not  only  against  dyes  and  the  weak  chemicals 
used  in  connection  with  them,  but  also  against  many 


Batik  259 

of  the  most  powerful  reagents  known  to  the  chemist, 
such  as  sulphuric  acid,  for  instance,  or  strong  caustic 
alkali. 

Accordingly,  if  a  piece  of  smooth  wood  is  carefully 
batiked  and  then,  instead  of  being  painted  with  dye- 
stuff  in  solution,  it  has  some  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
or  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  potash  poured 
and  spread  upon  it,  in  a  few  minutes,  after  the  reagent 
is  washed  off  and  the  wax  removed  with  gasoline  or 
otherwise,  the  exposed  surfaces  of  the  wood  will  be 
found  softened  and  corroded,  so  that  on  scrubbing 
with  a  stiff  brush,  they  can  be  readily  rubbed  away, 
and  the  waxed  portions  will  stand  out  in  relief. 

Metal  work,  like  copper  or  brass  plates  and  dishes, 
can  be  etched  readily  in  the  same  way,  the  pattern  of 
the  relief  being  drawn  in  wax,  and  the  metal  exposed 
for  a  greater  or  less  time  to  the  action  of  dilute  nitric 
acid. 

Without  going  further  into  details  it  is  hoped  that 
enough  has  been  stated  here  to  impress  on  the  student 
the  possibilities  of  this  beautiful  process  in  a  large 
number  of  different  directions. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  WAR  UPON 
THE  DYESTUFF  INDUSTRY 

IN  Chapter  II  of  this  book  it  has  been  explained 
how  the  dyeing  industry  of  the  whole  world  was 
changed  by  the  discovery  and  commercial  prepara- 
tion of  the  first  aniline  dyestuff,  mauveine,  in  1856,  by 
the  English  chemist  Perkin.  Under  his  leadership  the 
supremacy  in  this  new  industry  was  kept  in  England; 
but  when  he  retired  from  the  field  the  manufacture  of 
dyestuffs  was  soon  concentrated  in  Germany.  For 
over  forty  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Great 
War,  the  Germans  had  almost  complete  and  absolute 
control  over  the  whole  color  business,  including  many 
allied  industries  like  the  manufacture  of  organic  chem- 
icals, drugs,  perfumes,  flavoring  matters  and  the  like, 
derived  originally  from  coal  tar.  In  Germany  were 
four  or  five  great  and  splendidly  equipped  factories, 
and  some  ten  or  fifteen  others  of  less  importance,  all 
thoroughly  organized  and  working  together  most  har- 
moniously under  what  would,  in  the  United  States,  be 
called  a  most  perfect  specimen  of  a  Trust.  Opposed  to 
them  all  over  the  world  there  could  be  found  but  a 
handful  of  comparatively  small  and  unimportant  firms 
in  Switzerland,  France,  England  and  the  United 

260 


The  Influence  of  the  War  261 

States — producing  altogether  not  over  about  ten  per 
cent  of  the  output  of  their  German  competitors. 

Compared  to  other  industries  the  output  of  dyestuffs 
needed  for  the  whole  world's  consumption  is  not  a  very 
large  one — some  sixty  or  seventy  million  dollars  a  year 
all  told;  and  it  was  freely  boasted,  and  more  or  less 
accepted  by  the  rest  of  the  world,  that  "  the  dyestuff 
industry  is  a  one-nation  industry,  and  that  nation  is 
Germany ! " 

Rise  of  the  German  Dyestuff  Monopoly — The  story 
of  how  this  came  about  was  once  told  the  writer  by 
Sir  William  Perkin,  when  he  was  in  New  York,  in 
1896,  at  the  time  of  the  "  Coal  Tar  Color  Jubilee,"  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  famous  discovery. 

He  said  that  in  the  early  days,  when  he  was  run- 
ning his  plant  near  Manchester,  the  most  dangerous 
competitors  he  had  to  face  were  the  French.  He 
described  them  as  excellent  chemists  and  keen,  but  fair- 
fighting  business  men ;  and  the  Germans,  in  those  days, 
were  far  inferior  to  them  in  every  way — in  ability,  in 
originality,  and,  above  all,  in  honesty. 

He  went  so  far  as  to  say  that,  for  years  before  he 
left  the  business,  he  and  other  English  chemists  had 
entirely  abandoned  attempts  to  patent  their  discoveries 
in  Berlin.  He  had  found,  by  sad  experience,  that 
whenever  he  sent  over  an  application  for  a  patent  on  a 
new  dyestuff,  or  new  chemical  compound  of  impor- 
tance, the  German  Patent  Office  would  at  once  call  in, 
for  consultation,  the  leading  German  chemists  who 
were  interested  in  that  line  of  work.  He  would  get 
request  after  request  for  more  and  more  detailed  in- 


262  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

formation  about  every  part  of  the  process;  and  then, 
when  they  had  got  from  him  every  bit  of  information 
that  they  could,  they  would  grant  the  patent  to  some 
one  of  his  German  competitors,  who,  in  many  cases 
at  least,  had  never  even  dreamed  of  the  thing,  until 
Perkin  had  sent  his  application  to  Berlin.  In  fact,  he 
said  the  English  and  French  chemists  considered  them 
as  rank,  bare- faced  pirates,  and  none  too  successful 
pirates  at  that. 

Two  Germans  however,  in  1869,  did  work  out  the 
composition  of  alizarine,  the  dyestuff  of  madder,  and 
published  their  discovery  in  the  chemical  journals.  But 
while  they  discovered  and  patented  one  method  for 
preparing  this  Alizarine  from  coal  tar  on  a  commer- 
cial scale,  Perkin  in  England,  and  some  dyestuff  chem- 
ists in  France  discovered  other  methods  equally  good 
or  perhaps  better  for  producing  the  same  identical 
color  at  less  expense.  So  they  still  kept  well  ahead  of 
the  Germans  even  in  that. 

Soon  after  this,  in  1870,  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
broke  out.  At  once  the  French  and  German  factories 
closed,  at  any  rate  for  any  foreign  trade,  and  as  the 
cultivation  of  madder  had  by  that  time  been  aban- 
doned, Perkin  found  that  all  the  Turkey  red  for  the 
whole  Eastern  market  must  be  dyed  with  his  Man- 
chester alizarine.  Orders  came  pouring  in,  and  in 
order  to  keep  up  with  the  demand,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary for  him  to  greatly  increase  the  size  of  his  plant, 
and  to  put  back  into  it  all  his  savings  of  the  past  four- 
teen or  fifteen  very  profitable  years. 

This,  he  told  me,  he  was  unwilling  to  do.    But,  just 


The  Influence  of  the  War  263 

at  that  moment,  he  was  approached  by  a  firm  of  Man- 
chester business  men,  who  had  been  supplying  his 
works  with  some  of  the  raw  materials  from  coal  tar 
(crudes  and  intermediates  as  they  call  them  now),  with 
an  offer  to  buy  his  works  and  his  interest  in  the  busi- 
ness. He  was  perfectly  frank  and  open  with  them, 
showed  them  his  books,  his  profits  for  the  past  few 
years,  his  present  orders  and  the  rest,  and  after  a  lit- 
tle bargaining  he  sold  out  to  them  for  a  very  fair 
price,  which  he  immediately  invested  in  the  best  of  se- 
curities and  on  which  he  lived  in  comfort  for  the  rest 
of  his  long  and  extremely  happy  life. 
Ruin  of  the  English  Dyestuff  Industry. — As  soon  as 
they  had  gained  possession  of  his  factory,  the  Man- 
chester people  began  to  pass  word  around  among  their 
friends,  that  they  were  going  to  show  the  whole  world 
how  to  run  a  chemical  industry.  Perkin,  they  agreed, 
was  indeed  a  clever  fellow  in  his  way,  and  undoubt- 
edly a  good  chemist,  but  he  was  no  business  man. 
They  were  going  to  run  those  works  on  good,  prac- 
tical, common-sense  business  lines,  and  they  and  their 
few  friends  whom  they  allowed  to  join  them,  boasted 
loudly  and  deeply  of  their  expected  profits.  Their 
motto  was  the  well-established  one  "  Manufacture 
cheap  and  sell  dear  " — and  they  proceeded  to  follow  it 
implicitly. 

They  went  over  all  the  details  of  the  business  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  soon  found  what  seemed  to  them 
a  willful  piece  of  extravagance.  Perkin  himself,  and 
three  or  four  other  chemists,  were  drawing  salaries,  not 
for  the  actual  making  of  the  dyestuffs  but  for  experi- 


264  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

mental  purposes,  and  they  had  quite  an  expensive 
laboratory  used  for  that  purpose  alone! 

Of  course  this  was  at  once  eliminated — and  great 
was  their  satisfaction  when  they  found  that  they  had 
thereby  cut  down  the  price  of  making  their  dyes  two 
or  three  cents  a  pound. 

Then  it  came  to  the  "  selling  dear "  part  of  it. 
Perkin  told  me  that  the  last  few  years  that  he  ran  his 
factory,  he  kept  the  price  of  his  dyestuffs  at  a  reason- 
able figure,  so  that,  indeed,  he  would  get  a  good  profit 
from  them,  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be 
no  easy  matter  for  competitors  to  break  into  his  field 
with  success.  His  alizarine,  in  particular,  he  had  kept 
at  a  price  just  below  what  it  would  pay  to  grow  madder 
in  opposition  to  it,  and  he  had  not  raised  the  price  to 
any  great  extent  since  the  war  had  given  him  a 
monopoly.  These  Manchester  people,  however,  fully 
recognized  that  they  were  the  only  manufacturers  of 
alizarine,  anywhere,  and  were  over-flooded  with  orders 
— so  they  instantly  jumped  up  the  price  of  their 
alizarine  to  four  or  five  times  its  former  figures. 

Barely  had  they  completed  their  "  business "  re- 
organization of  the  plant  when  the  war  came  to  an 
end,  and  the  Germans  marched  back  to  their  own  coun- 
try, with  "  five  milliards  "  of  French  money,  full  of 
self-confidence  (to  use  a  very  mild  term)  and  looking 
around  for  new  fields  to  conquer  in  peace,  now  that 
they  had  won  all  that  they  could  at  that  time  by  war. 
Instantly  every  German  with  any  knowledge  of  the  tex- 
tile or  dyestuff  industries  turned  his  eyes  at  once  in 
that  direction.  "What!  Alizarine  at  five  dollars  a 


The  Influence  of  the  War  265 

pound  instead  of  a  dollar;  why,  any  fool  can  make  a 
profit  on  colors  at  that  price ! "  And  immediately,  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  factory  after  factory 
was  started,  each  one  centered  around  some  first-class 
chemist,  of  national  if  not  international  reputation, 
with  instructions  to  gather  around  himself  a  staff  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  best  trained  organic  chemists  he 
could  find,  to  be  used  first  of  all  in  experimental  and 
investigating  work  as  well  as  for  the  mere  preparation 
of  dyestuffs. 

As  a  result,  in  a  very  short  time,  these  new  German 
firms  were  supplying  alizarine  and  other  dyestuffs  to 
the  Manchester  Turkey  red  manufacturers  at  lower 
prices  than  they  could  be  made  for  in  Perkin's  old  fac- 
tory in  the  immediate  neighborhood;  and,  before  the 
end  of  the  year,  those  clever  business  men  were  com- 
plaining bitterly  to  Perkin  that  he  had  cheated  them  in 
the  sale  of  his  works,  and  were  wanting  him  to  give 
them  their  money  back,  which,  as  the  old  gentleman 
told  me  with  a  chuckle,  he  very  positively  and  decidedly 
refused  to  do. 

From  that  time  until  the  beginning  of  the  Great  War 
the  great  English  textile  industry,  with  its  enormous 
trade  all  over  the  world,  was  obliged  to  buy  practically 
all  its  dyestuffs  from  Germany. 

Dye  stuff  Industry  in  the  United  States. — The  manu- 
facture of  dyestuffs  in  this  country  was  a  little  better 
than  in  England,  because  of  the  tariff  protection 
granted  it  by  the  Government  for  many  years.  Four 
or  five  factories  of  very  moderate  size  kept  up  a  rather 
precarious  existence,  because  their  chief  raw  materials, 


266  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

the  so-called  "  intermediates,"  organic  chemicals  made 
from  coal  tar  and  from  which  the  principal  products, 
dyes,  drugs,  perfumes  and  the  like  are  made  in  turn, 
all  had  to  be  imported  from  Europe,  and,  in  most 
cases,  from  their  German  rivals  who  naturally  kept 
a  tight  rein  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their 
output. 

In  1913  even  this  industry  was  destroyed  by  the 
abolition  of  the  duties  on  dyestuffs  in  the  new  tariff, 
thanks  to  the  pressure  for  free  raw  materials  brought 
by  the  great  textile  industries,  probably  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  foreign  color  houses. 

Changed  Conditions  Due  to  the  War — Since  1914  this 
whole  situation  has  been  radically  and  completely 
changed  all  over  the  world.  Appreciating  the  great 
danger  to  their  textile  trades  from  the  lack  of  dye- 
stuffs,  and  also  the  vast  military  importance  of  a  large 
and  highly  developed  coal  tar  products  industry,  for 
the  manufacture  of  high  explosives,  smokeless  powder 
and  the  like,  nation  after  nation  has  given  govern- 
ment assistance  not  only  in  the  line  of  money,  but  also 
with  patent  legislation  and  new  tariff.  England  with 
its  British  Dye  Works,  Ltd.,  France  with  the  St. 
Denis  Works,  now  greatly  enlarged  and  strengthened, 
Italy,  Japan,  all  have  made  arrangements  for  supplying 
their  trade  with  home-made  dyestuffs,  of  excellent 
quality,  not  only  during  but  after  the  temporary  dis- 
turbance due  to  the  actual  fighting. 

In  the  United  States  there  soon  were  made  many 
more  or  less  independent  and  spasmodic  efforts  to 
supply  at  least  the  principal  and  most  generally  used 


The  Influence  of  the  War  267 

colors,  notably  the  Basic  dyes,  Methylene  Blue,  Methyl 
Violet  and  the  like,  so  much  used  in  calico  printing,  silk 
and  wool  dyeing,  leather  and  other  lines,  and  the 
simpler  Sulphur  colors,  like  Sulphur  Black,  Blues,  and 
Browns.  These  were  selling,  before  the  end  of  1914, 
at  comparatively  huge  prices,  and  until  the  peace  will 
probably  still  command  from  five  to  ten  times  their 
usual  values. 

But  out  of  these  scores  of  generally  quite  small  and 
isolated  factories,  there  have  sprung,  by  the  fourth 
year  of  hostilities,  a  few  large,  well  equipped  and 
fully  financed  organizations  which  will  be  able,  within 
a  very  short  time,  indeed  probably  before  these  lines 
appear  in  print,  to  fully  provide  this  country  with  the 
main  standard  dyes,  quite  as  good  in  every  respect  as 
the  same  dyes  made  by  the  best  German  color  houses. 
And,  unless  very  adverse  tariff  legislation  should  be 
introduced,  they  should  be  in  a  position,  after  the  close 
of  the  war,  to  hold  their  trade  against  any  foreign 
competition.  It  will,  of  course,  take  several  years  be- 
fore they  can  supply  in  this  country  the  very  finest 
special  dyestuffs,  of  which  but  small  quantities  are  ever 
needed  or  used,  and  which  in  most  cases  are  fully  pro- 
tected by  patents,  as  well  as  by  secret  methods  of  manu- 
facture. But,  with  the  exception  of  the  vat  colors,  of 
which  artificial  Indigo  and  the  closely  allied  Brom- 
indigo  are  at  present  the  only  ones  made  in  this  coun- 
try, the  dyeing  trade  will  be,  in  a  short  time,  well 
supplied  with  excellent  standard  colors  "  made  in 
America." 

The    three    important    American    dyestuff    houses 


268  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

already  started  with  the  addresses  of  their  New  York 
offices  are  as  follows : — 

American — American  Aniline   Products,  Inc., 
80  Fifth  Avenue. 

Marden —    Marden,  Orth  and  Hastings, 
6 1  Broadway. 

National—  National  Aniline  and  Chemical  Co., 
244  Madison  Avenue. 

And  also,  soon  to  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  dye- 
stuffs  on  a  large  scale : — 

The  Dupont  de  Nemours  Chemical  Co., 
of  Wilmington,  Del. 

Lists  of  the  Best  Dyestuffs,  in  the  Different  Classes, 
Made  Thus  Far  by  the  American  Manufacturers 

At  the  present  moment,  November,  1917,  but  few  of 
the  home-made  colors  are  as  fast  to  light  as  the  spe- 
cially selected  dyes  of  the  great  German  houses,  listed 
on  pages  66,  89,  103  and  127.  Those  in  the  following 
lists  are  the  best  made  at  present,  in  the  United  States, 
and  will  be  steadily  improved  upon  as  time  goes  on. 

Direct  Cotton  or  Salt  Dyes. — 

American — Benzo  Fast  Yellow,  A 
Direct  Sky  Blue 

Marden—    Stilbene  Yellow 
Direct  Blue 
Direct  Brown 

National—  Delta  Red,  2  B 

Niagara  Fast  Yellow,  F 
Niagara  Blue,  2  B 
Erie  Black,  G  X  OO 


The  Influence  of  the  War  269 

Sulphur  Colors. — 

Marden —    Sulphur  Black 
Sulphur  Brown 

National —  Sulphur  Brown,  W  F 
Sulphur  Yellow,  B  W 
Sulphur  Direct  Navy  Blue 
Sulphur  Black,  F  cone. 

Vat  Colors. — 

Dibrom  Indigo,  powder  and  paste 
Synthetic  Indigo,  20%  paste 

Made  by  the  Dow  Chemical  Company  of  Midland, 
Michigan.  New  York  Agents,  Geisenheimer  &  Co., 
134  Cedar  Street. 

Synthetic  Indigo  and  Sodium  hydro-sulphite  can  also 
be  obtained  from  Klipstein,  654  Greenwich  Street, 
New  York. 

Basic  Colors. — 

Many  of  these  such  as  Methylene  Blue,  Methyl 
Violet,  Phosphine,  Bismarck  Brown  and  others,  includ- 
ing leather  Black,  are  being  made  by  American,  Mar- 
den  and  National,  as  well  as  by  many  firms  that  so 
far  have  not  gone  into  the  general  color  business.  One 
of  the  most  important  of  these  last,  who,  besides  the 
above,  make  a  brilliant  basic  Green,  called  by  them 
Methylene  Green,  is  the  Meth-O-Lene  Co.,  Inc.,  81-83 
Fulton  Street,  New  York. 

Auramine,  at  present,  can  best  be  obtained  from 
Klipstein.  Nigrosine  soluble  in  water,  in  jet  black  and 
bluish  shades,  is  made  by  Marden,  Meth-O-Lene  and 
other  firms,  and  is  largely  used  for  dyeing  leather  fast 
brilliant  shades  of  black. 


270  Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Acid  Colors. — 

American — Fast  Yellow,  H  Ex. 
Brilliant  Blue,  cone. 
Cloth  Red,  H 
Acid  Black,  L  cone. 

Marden —    Metanril  Yellow 
Orange,  No.  2 
Fast  Acid  Red 
Croceine  Scarlet 

National—  Azo  Yellow,  A  S  W 
Scarlet,  B  R 
Acid  Black,  4  A  B 

Also  Tartrazine,  a  fast  acid  yellow  much  used  for 
wool,  not  for  silk. 


SPECIAL  NOTE 

Further  information  concerning  dyestuffs,  apparatus,  textiles, 
chemicals,  etc.,  connected  with  this  work,  may  be  obtained  on 
writing  to  the  author  at  7  West  43rd  Street,  New  York. 


INDEX 


There  is  no  mention  either  of  the  Plate  illustrations  or  of 
the  Figure  illustrations  in  the  index;  these  may  be  found  in  a 
list  of  the  illustrations  in  the  front  of  the  book. 


Acid  Azo  Colors,  123,  124 

Acid  Colors,  52,  54,  123-131, 
131-136,  148-150,  152,  165- 
168,  219,  258 

After-treatment,  18,  67,  68,  89 

Alizarine  and  Alizarine  Dye- 
stuffs,  22,  23,  42 

Alizarine  Assistant  or  Turkey 
Red  Oil,  88,  106,  232 

Aniline,  40,  41 

Aniline  Black — for  Stencilling, 
224-228 

Aniline  Colors,  109.  Also  see 
Basic  Colors 

Aniline  Red  or  Fuchsine,  Ma- 
genta, 40,  109 

Animal  Dyes,  11-14.  Also  see 
Cochineal,  Kermes,  Lac,  Ty- 
rian  purple 

Artificial  Silk,  39,  87,  112,  181, 
184-192 

Artificial  or  Synthetic  Indigo, 
92,  93 

Bagobo  Tied  Work,  196,   199, 

200,  202,  206 
Basic   Colors,   52,   54,   108-123, 

148-153,  220-223,  258 
Basketry,  Dyeing  of,  113,  114, 

116-123,  258 

Batik  or  Wax  Resist,  241-260 
Benedict,    Miss    Laura    (Tied 

Work  from  Philippines),  199, 

200,  206 

Bismarck  Brown,  109,  115,  124 
Bistre  or  Permanganate  Bronze, 

32-35 


Black   Dyeing— with   Coal-Tar 

Colors,  69,  86,  89,  114,  168, 

169 
Black  Dyeing — with  Logwood, 

21,  138,  169-172 
Black  Stencilling,  224-228 
Bleaching     Powder,     208-211, 

234-236 
Boiled-off  Liquor,  161,  162,  164, 

168,  174 
Bone-colored  by  Batik  Process, 

258 
British    uniforms,    dyed    with 

cochineal,  19 

Bronze  on  Leather,  153-155 
Bronze      (Permanganate)      or 

Bistre,  32-35 
Brown    (Bismarck),    109,    115, 

124 

Brown,  dyed  with  Permanga- 
nate of  Potash,  32-35 

Cachou  de  Laval,  85 

Catechu.    See  Cutch 

Chardonnet  Silk,  184,  185,  189 

Chloride  of  Lime.  See  Bleach- 
ing Powder 

Chrome  Orange,  32 

Chrome  Yellow,  32 

Chrome  Tanning,   144 

Chundries  or  Chunaries  (In- 
dian Tied  Work),  196-199 

Classification  of  Coal-Tar 
Colors,  for  Craftsmen,  51,  52 

Cochineal,  u,  18,  19 

Congo  Red,  55,  56,  57 

Cordovan  Leather,  142 


271 


272 


Index 


Cotton  Colors.  See  Salt  Colors 
Cotton   Dyeing,  59-64,  86,  88- 

oo,  98,  99 
"  Covering,"  83 
Crackle   Effect— in  Batik,  244, 

246,  247 
Cutch,  18,  85,  146,  171 

Direct  Coloring,  193 

Direct  Cotton  Dyeing.  See 
Salt  Colors  and  Sulphur 
Colors.  Also  17,  53,  55,  85 

Discharge  Stencilling,  233-241 

Discharge  work,  193,  208-211 

Discovery  of  Acid  Colors,  123, 
124;  Aniline  or  Coal-Tar 
Colors,  40,  41,  46;  Basic 
Colors,  108,  109;  Indigo,  9, 
10,  91,  92;  Salt  Colors,  55, 
56;  Sulphur  Colors,  85,  86; 
Vat  Colors,  modern,  103 

Discovery  (Perkin's),  40,  41, 
46,  54,  108,  109 

Dyeing  Directions — for  Acid 
Colors,  127-131,  132-137,  148- 
153,  162,  163;  Artificial  Silk, 
187,  189,  190;  Basic  Colors, 
117-123,  148-150;  Basketry, 
117-123;  Batik,  254-258;  Cot- 
ton and  Linen,  27,  30,  33,  59- 
64,  87-89,  98,  99,  105-198; 
Feathers,  132-137 ;  Imitation 
Silk,  183;  Indigo,  08,  99; 
Iron  Buff  (Iron  Rust), 27-29; 
Iron  Grey,  30;  Leather,  148- 
150;  Permanganate  Bronze, 
33;  Raffia,  120-123;  Resist 
Stencilling,  232;  Salt  Colors, 
59-64,  175,  176,  233;  Silk, 
162-165,  i74-i8i,  207;  Straw, 
117-120;  Sulphur  Colors,  87- 
89,  1 80,  207,  232;  Tied  and 
Dyed  Work,  206,  207;  Vat 
Colors,  105-108,  177-181 ; 
Wild  Silk,  164,  165;  Wool, 
24,  127-131 

Eastern  Dyes,  10,  13,  17-21,  22, 

199,  200,  245 
Elberfeld  Silk,  185,  189 


Embroidery-fast    Silk,    175-181 
Equipment  needed  for  Dyeing, 
35-39 

Fastness  to  Light,  42,  49,  63- 

66,    89,    loo,    102,    103,    112, 

114,  126,  153 
Fastness  to  Washing,  64-67,  89, 

loo,  103,  124,  137,  174-181 
Feathers    and    Feather-dyeing, 

39,  131-141 
Fermentation   Method   of  Vat 

dyeing,  94 
Finishing — Artificial    Silk,    39, 

189,   190;   Feathers,  39,   134, 

135;  Leather,  153;   Silk,  39, 

163,  164 
Fustic,  20 

Gambier,  146,  171 

Gelatin  or  Glue,  used  as  Re- 
agent, 87 

Glanzstoff  (Elberfeld  Silk), 
185,  189 

Glucose,  33,  87,  179 

Grain  Colors  (Cochineal, 
Kermes,  Lac),  n,  12,  19 

Grey,  Miss  Mary — Tied  Work, 
203 

Grey,  from  mixture  of  colors, 
72,  73,  82,  83 

Grey,  from  Iron  Salts  and 
Tannin,  29,  31 

Heating  devices,  used  in  Dye- 
ing, 36 

History.  See  Discovery.  Also 
Ancient  Dyestuffs,  8-16; 
Artificial  Silk,  184-187;  Batik, 
241-245;  Dyes  of  our  An- 
cestors, 17-24 ;  Imitation  Silk, 
182,  183;  Leather,  141-144; 
Silk,  156,  157;  Stencils  and 
Stencilling,  211,  212;  Tied 
and  Dyed  Work,  192-200 

Horses,  dyed  Brown  with 
Permanganate,  34 

Hydrosulphite  of  Sodium,  35, 
97,  98,  104,  105,  118,  209,  210, 
237-241 


Index 


273 


Imitation  Silk,  181-184 
Indian  Dyes,  17,  18,  199 
Indian  Tied  and  Dyed  Work, 

196-199,  202,  206 
Indigo  and  Vat  Colors,  9,  10, 

14,  91-108,  222-225 
Indigo,  Application  of,  93,  98- 

100 

Introduction,  5-8 
Iron  Buff  (Iron  Rust),  25-29, 

103 
Iron  Grey,  29-31 

Japanese  Practice,  31,  211-219, 

228-231 
Javanese  Practice  (Batik),  242- 

256 

Kermes,  12 
Khaki,  28 

Lac  Dye,  II,  19,  20 

Leather,  141-156;  Dyeing  and 
Staining  of,  HI,  148-153; 
Finishing  of,  153;  History 
of,  141-144;  Preparation  of, 
143-148;  Stencilling  of,  279 

Linen— Dyeing  of.  See  Cotton 
Dyeing,  59-64,  86,  88-90,  98, 
99 

Local  Dyeing  Formulae,  24 

Logwood,  21,  138,  169-172 

Madder,  10 

Manufacturers     of     Coal-Tar 

Colors,  48 

Matching  Shades,  77,  78,  101 
Matching  Shades  by  Night,  84 
Mauvine  (Perkin's  Violet),  40, 

41,  108,  109 
Metal,    Etching    of    by    Batik 

Process,  259 
Methyl     Violet       See     Basic 

Colors,  also  49,  108 
Methylene    Blue.      See    Basic 

Colors,    also    109,    112,    114, 

149 

Mineral  Dyes,  25-35 
Mixed  Shades,  with  Diagram, 

78-84 


Modern  and  Ancient  Dyestuffs, 
compared,  5,  6 

Mordants  and  Mordanting,  11, 
18-25,  53,  55,  no 

Murex  Brandaris  (Tyrian  Pur- 
ple Fish),  12 

Murex  Trunculus,  12 

Night,    Matching    Shades    by 

84 
North  Carolina  Practice,  24 

Perkin,   Sir  Wm.   Henry,   40- 

43,  46,  108,  109 
Perkin's  Discovery.    See  Perkin 
Permanganate    Bronze     (Per- 
manganate   Brown,    Bistre), 
32-35 

Peruvian  Tied  Work,  196 
Philippine    Tied    Work,    196, 

199-201 

Primary  Colors,  72,  73 
Purpura       Lapillus       (Tyrian 
Purple  Fish),  12 

Raffia,  Dyeing  of,  120,  121 
Rainbow  Dyeing,  74,  75,  82,  83, 

119-122,  129,  136 
Rajput    Tied    Work     (Chun- 
dries),  196-199,  202,  206 
Resist  Stencil  Paste,  229-234 
Resist    Work,    194,    195,    also 

196-209,  229-234,  241-260 
Rubber     Gloves — Useful     for 

Dyeing,   37 
"Rubbing,"   101,  192 
Rush,  Dr.  Benjamin,  211 
Ruskin,     John,     Opinion     on 
Modern  Dyestuffs,  5 

Safflower,  17,  55 

Saffron,  10 

Saffron,     Indian     (Turmeric), 

i? 
Salt — used  in   Dyeing,  62,  87, 

88,  107 
Salt    Colors     (Direct    Cotton 

Colors),  51,  55-71,  HI,  175, 

220,    237,    238-240;    List    of 


274 


Index 


Selected  Dyestuffs,  66;  Prop- 
erties and  Uses,  69 

Sarongs,  243 

Selected  Dyestuffs,  Lists  of— 
Acid  Colors,  127,  152,  166; 
Basic  Colors,  114,  115,  149; 
Salt  Colors,  66;  Sulphur 
Colors,  90;  Vat  Colors,  103, 
179 

Shades,  Matching  of,  81 

Shikar,  Chundries  (Tied  Work 
from  India),  197 

Silk,  Artificial,  39,  87,  112,  181, 
184-192 

Silk,  156-181;  Dyeing,  58,  86, 
87,  161-164,  174-181 ;  Imita- 
tion, 181-184;  Preparation  of 
for  Dyeing,  159-162;  Stencil- 
ling of,  219-223,  240;  Tests 
for  Weighted,  173,  *74;  Va- 
rieties of,  157-160;  Weighting 
of,  169-175;  Wild,  157-159, 
164-167 

Skein  Dyeing  129,  130,  163 

Soap,  uses  of,  in  Dyeing,  60, 
61,  161-166,  171 

Soda  Ash  (Sodium  Carbon- 
ate), 27,  28,  88 

Sodium  Bicarbonate,  27,  28 

Sodium  Carbonate.  See  Soda 
Ash 

Sodium  Hydrosulphite,  35,  97, 
98,  104,  105,  118,  209,  210, 

237-241 
Sodium    Hydroxide     (Caustic 

Soda),  97,  105 
Sodium     Sulphate     (Glauber's 

Salt),  128 

Sodium  Sulphide,  85,  86,  88 
Starching  (for  Feathers),  134- 

136 
Stencils   and    Stencilling,   211- 

228,  228-241 
Stencil  Salt,  223,  224,  239 


Stripping,  126,  137,  166,  167 
Sulphur  Colors,  85-90,  102,  in, 
179,  180,  224,  237,  238 

Tannin  (Tannic  Acid),  18,  30, 

31,  145,  146,  171 
Tanning,    143-148 
Three-Color  Shades,  79-81 
Tied    and    Discharged    Work, 

208-211 
Tied  and  Dyed  Work,  31,  192- 

211 

Ties  and  Stops,  214-217 
Tin  salts  as  Mordants,  n,  19 
Tin  Weighting  of  Silk,  171-175 
Tjantings.     See  Batik,  244-254 
"Topping,"  in 
Turkey  Red,  11,  22,  56,  57 
Turkey  Red  Oil  (Alizarine  As- 
sistant), 88,  106,  232 
Turmeric  (Indian  Saffron),  17 
Tussah   Silk.     See  Wild   Silk 
Tyrian  Purple,  12-16,  91 

Vat  Colors.     See  Indigo,  also 

102-108,  222-225 
Vat  Dyeing,  94-100,   178-180 
Vegetable  Colors,  8-n,   17-19, 

20-25 
Viscose     (in    Artificial    Silk), 

185,  186 

Washing,  Fastness  to,  64-67, 
89,  ioo,  103,  124,  125,  137,  166, 
174-181 

Weighting  of  Silk,  170-175 

Woad,  9,  10 

Wood,  Dyeing  of,  258 

Wood,  Etching  of,  by  Batik 
Process,  259 

Wool,  Dyeing  of,  58,  86,  128- 

131 

Wool,  Stencilling  on,  221 
Wringers,  Use  of  in  Dyeing, 

38 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

ENVIRONMENTAL  DESIGN 
LIBRARY 

Tel.  No.  642-4818 
This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


MAR  25  1978 


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MAY  7      1977 


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